PHYSICS
Physics is the study of the proper- tor quantity and its unit is The branch of science which
ties of matter and energy. m/s2. deals with the study of relative
A decrease in the velocity with movement of interacting
MOTION time is called deceleration or surfaces is called tribology.
The length of the path be- retardation. It is otherwise In order to increase stability,
tween two points is the dis- known as negative accelera- a person climbing a hill bends
tance between them. tion. forward.
Physical quantities that have • If the acceleration remains The flying of birds is a con-
only magnitude and no constant, i.e., it does not sequence of Newtons third
direction are called scalar change with time it is said to law of motion.
quantities. be uniform acceleration. Equations of Motion
Eg: Distance, speed, time, • The earth attracts every- Three exists some relation be-
work, mass, density, tempera- body towards its centre. The tween velocity acceleration
ture etc. acceleration with which freely and the time intervals during
falling bodies are attracted which we study the motion of
Physical quantities that have
towards the earth is called the a body. These relations are
both magnitude and direction
acceleration due to gravity. It called equations of motion.
are called vector quantities.
is same for all bodies and its They are:
Eg: Displacement, weight, value is 9.81 m/s. V = u + at
velocity, acceleration etc.
Inertia is the tendency of a S = ut + 1/2 at2
Speed is the distance travelled body to continue in its state
by a body in unit time. It is a 2as = v2 – u2
of rest or the state of uniform
scalar quantity. Its unit is m/s. where v - final velocity
motion along a straight line.
u - initial velocity
Distance Galileo discovered law of in-
Speed t - time interval
Time ertia.
An athlete run some distance a - uniform acceleration
Velocity is the displacement
before taking a long jump, by s - displacement
per unit time. It is a vector
quantity and its unit is m/s. running the athlete gives him- The force required to stop a
self larger inertia of motion. moving body depends on its
Displaceme nt mass and also on its velocity.
Velocity As the train starts moving, a
Time man sitting inside leans back- Momentum (P) is defined as
Acceleration is the rate of wards because of inertia of the product of mass and ve-
change of velocity. It is a vec- rest. locity of a body i.e, P = mv
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Momentum is a vector quan- called adhesion. etal force.
tity Weight can be defined as the Friction can be reduced by
Unit of momentum is Kg m/s. force with which earth attracts changing over from sliding
FORCE a body. to rolling
Weight, w = m × g When a man circles round the
Force is any influence that
earth in a spacecraft, his mass
tends to change the state of Mass remains constant while
rest or the uniform motion in a remains constant but weight
weight varies from place to becomes zero
straight line of a body. place.
Unit of force is Newton Two object lossing the same
Friction is a force that resists weight when immersed in wa-
The force of attraction bet-
ween like molecules is called the movement of one surface ter must have the same den-
cohesion. over another. sity
The force of attraction be- The force required by a re- Centrifugal force helps to
tween unlike molecules is volving body is called centrip- separate cream from milk.
GRAVITATION
The attractive force of earth,
or other celestial body, on an
object is called gravity.
The earth attracts everybody
towards its centre. The
acceleration with which the
freely falling bodies are
attracted towards the earth is
called the acceleration due to
gravity (g).
Value of g = 9.8 m/s2
The value of g at the centre of
earth is zero.
The value of g is very high at Gravitation keeps the planets in orbit around the Sun.
polar region. of the earth. Therefore, the ac-
region and low in the equatorial
The value of g is very small at celeration due to gravity expe-
region.
equitorial region. rienced on the moon will be less
The weight of a body on the
The weight of a substance is than the acceleration due to
moon will be less than its
zero at the centre of earth. As gravity experienced on the
weight on the earth. This is so
the mass of the substances because the mass of the moon 1
increases the gravitational earth. This will be about g.
1 6
force between them also is of the mass of the earth
81 On the moon an astronaut can-
increases. not drink lemonade with the
The weight of a body in 1 help of a straw because - There
earth is very high in the polar its radius is of the radius
3.66 is no atmosphere on the moon.
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The mass of a body which The line on earth’s surface smallest surface area.
determines the gravitational passing through the places The spherical shape of rain
having zero dip is called the drops and mist drops are due
force of attraction due to earth
magnetic equator. It passes to surface tension. The
is called gravitational mass. through Thumba. spherical shape is attained to
Escape velocity is the minimum
VISCOSITY AND maintain equilibrium.
speed which a spacecraft must Soap bubbles also tend to form
have to escape from the earth's SURFACE TENSION themselves into shapes with
gravitational force. It is Capillary action is responsible minimal surface area.
7 miles/s. (or 11.2 km/s) for the absorbance of water by Soap is added to water to
The escape velocity of a body the plants and oils by the wick reduce the surface tension, so
is different and different of lamps. clothes (or whatever else) get
Fluids flow with zero viscosity much cleaner.
celestial bodies.
is called superfluids (anti- Water has a fairly low viscosity;
In the absence of an effective
gravity property). things like shampoo or syrup
force of gravity, bodies become The force within the liquid have higher viscosities.
weightless in artificial satellites. which opposes the relative Viscosity also depends on
Gravitational field is the space motion of one layer over the temperature : engine oil, for
around a massive body in other is called viscosity. instance, is much less viscous
which gravitational force of Venturimeter is used for mea- at high temperatures than it is
attraction is felt. suring the rate of flow of liq- in a cold engine in the middle
Planets move slower along uids. of winter.
Viscosity is the internal fluid
their orbits when they are ELASTICITY
friction.
farthest from the sun (at Surface tension is the property
apogee) and they move faster Elasticity is the ability of a
possessed by a liquid surface body to return to its original
along their orbits when they whereby they appear to be shape and size on the removal
are nearest to the sun (at covered by a thin elastic of the deforming force.
perigee) memberane. Glass is more elastic than
Gravitation is responsible for Surface tensions is caused by steel and steel is more elastic
keeping the Earth and the other unbalanced molecular cohe- than rubber.
planets in their orbits around sive force. If a body does not regain its
Unit of surface tension is N/m. original size and shape after
the Sun; for keeping the Moon
When the temperature of fluids the removal of deforming force,
in its orbit around the Earth;
increases viscosity decreases. it is called a plastic body and
for the formation of tides; for The surface tension decreases this property is called plasticity.
natural convection, by which with rise of temperature. Eg: Clay, Plasticine etc.
fluid flow occurs under the Surface tension is a property
influence of a density gradient of a liquid by which the free DENSITY &
and gravity; for heating the surface of a liquid behaves like PRESSURE
interiors of forming stars and a stretched elastic membrane,
planets to very high tempera- having contractive tendency.
Mass
The larger the surface, the Density
tures; and for various other Volume
more energy there is. To
phenomena observed on minimize energy, most fluids Density of a body
Earth. Re lative density
assume the shape with the Density of water
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Eye Opener
ut havi ng any
hi gh vo lt age cable witho
ts on a very out due to
When a bird si fe at he rs tends to spread
r on it , it s of the bird
in sula ti on cove ie; feat he rs on ei ther side
electrostati c re
pulsive force. sitively charged
. (e ith er both become po
d of like natu re takespla ce.
become charge ly ch ar ge d) .H ence repulsion
e negative
or both becom
Thrust
The amount of water vapour Pr essure N / m 2 or Pascal
Area
in the air is termed as humidity.
The total normal force exerted
When a piece of ice floating by a fluid on a surface is called
on the surface of water in a to accomplish work - it is like
thrust. Its unit is Newton (N). the "currency" for performing
bucket melts completely, the
Pressure increases with depth work. To do 100 joules of work,
water level will remain the
The pressure inside a baro- you must expend 100 joules of
same.
meter remains high under a energy.
An iron nail floats on mercury calm climate.
but sinks in water because the Power is the rate of doing work
Mercury is used as the liquid
specific density of iron is or the rate of using energy,
in thermometers as it does not
lower than that of mercury and which are numerically the
wet glass.
higher than that of water. same. If you do 100 joules of
Pascal’s law states that pre-
A petrol fire cannot be ssure in a fluid in equilibrium
work in one second (using 100
extinguished by throwing joules of energy), the power is
is the same everywhere.
water on it since the density 100 watts.
Water distribution in cities,
of water is more than the Unit of energy is joule.
flush tank, hydraulic brake,
density of petrol, water sinks The energy possessed by a
below the petrol when it is hydraulic lift, hydraulic press
etc are working based on body due to its position in a
poured over a petrol fire. field of force or configuration
The density of sea water is Pascal’s law.
The lactometer used to test is called potential energy.
higher than the density of P.E = mgh
river water, therefore it is the purity of milk is based on
the principle that the greater m = mass g = gravity
easier to swim in the sea than
density of a liquid, the lesser h=height (distance between
in river. This is why a ship
will be the immension of an the body and the surface)
entering from river mouth to
sea rises up a little. object. Energy of a body due to its
Ice floats on water because its motion is called kinetic energy.
WORK, ENERGY
weight is less than the weight Kinetic energy = 12 mv 2
of an equal volume of water. AND POWER (m = mass, v = velocity)
Ice floats on water but sinks Work refers to an activity The change in the kinetic
in alcohol because the density involving a force and energy of an object is equal to
of alcohol is lower than that movement in the directon of the the net work done on the
of water.
force. A force of 20 newtons object.
The density of water is maxi-
mum at 40C pushing an object 5 meters in Mechanical energy can be
The pressure at a point on a the direction of the force does either kinetic energy (energy of
surface is the thrust acting 100 joules of work. motion) or potential energy
normally per unit area around Energyis the capacity for doing (stored energy of position).
that point. work. You must have energy Objects have mechanical
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energy if they are in motion speed in a circle in a horizon- Machanical advantage of a
and/or if they are at some tal plane over his head, does
load
position relative to a zero no work. machine = effort
potential energy position Unit of work is Newton metre
Rate of doing work is called (Nm). WAVES
power. Its unit is watt LEVERS Electromagnetic waves are
work coupled periodic electrical
Power A lever is a simple machine
time and magnetic disturbances
Escape velocity is the velocity consisting of a rigid rod pivoted
created by oscillating electric
at a fixed point called the
with which a projectile must be charges.
fulcrum. It is used for shifting
projected in order that it may All waves of the electro mag-
or raising a heavy load or
escape the earth’s gravitational netic spectrum travel at the
applying force in a similar way.
pull. same velocity, a quantity
A body in which a force is felt known as the speed of light.
The escape velocity from the is called resistance (R) and the The speed of light is approxi-
surface of the earth is 11.2 kms force applied here is called mately 3×10 8 m/s (about
The escape velocity from the effort (E). 186,000 miles per second).
planet, Jupiter is 61 km/second. If the fulcrum comes in Electromagnetic waves can
For Mercury it is 42 km/second. between resistance and effort travel through vacuum.
According to law of such levers are called Ist order Transverse wave is a type of
conservation of energy of levers. energy wave in which motion
Albert Einstein, energy can Eg: balance, nail puller see-saw, of the particles is perpendicu-
neither be created nor be lar to the motion of the wave.
a pair of scissors etc.
destroyed but it may be Wave on a rope and waves on
If resistance comes in between the surface of water are trans-
transformed from one form to
effort and fulcrum then such verse.
another. levers are called II nd order If the motion of the particles
The energy possessed by the
levers. is along the direction of mo-
water collected in the reser-
Eg: Wheel barrow, nut cracker tion of waves, it is called a lon-
voir of a dam is potential en-
etc. gitudinal wave.
ergy Sound waves in a medium
When a force acts upon an If effort is between resistance
and fulcrum such levers are (solid, liquid or gas) are longi-
object causes a displacement tudinal.
called III rd order levers.
then, it is said that work was Transverse waves travel in
done upon that object. the form of crests and troughs
There are three key ingredi- Eg: Pincers, Icetongs etc. while longitudinal wave trav-
ents to work - force, displace- Efficiency of a machine els in the form of compres-
ment, and cause. Power output sions and rarefactions.
The work done by a force on = Power input Earthquake waves are infra-
a body is defined as the prod- sonic waves.
uct of the magnitude of the
force and the distance moved Levers can be used to exert a large force over
a small distance at one end by exerting only a
in the diection of force.
small force over a greater distance at the other.
Work done = force × distance
A boy, swinging a stone, tied
to a string, with a uniform
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The property which distin- the sound waves get reflected Hz) are called infrasonic
guishes transverse waves and they can change their waves.
from longitudinal waves is direction. They use this Sounds of frequency higher
polarization. method to catch insects also. than 20,000 Hz are known as
Diffraction is the property in Since sound waves need a ultrasonic and are inaudiable.
waves of turning round the medium to travel they cannot SONAR stands for Sound
edges of an obstacle. be transmitted through Navigation And Ranging. It
Sound can be heard around a vacuum. uses ultrasonic waves.
corner due to diffraction. The audible frequency of
Sound travels faster throu-
When a wave strikes a surface human ear is between 20 hertz
gh solids, expecially, throu-
of separation of two different and 20,000 hertz (20 KHz).
gh metals.
media, some of it is thrown A speed greater than the
back into the original medium. speed of sound is referred to The intensity of sound is
This property of bouncing of as supersonic. measured in decibel.
the waves is called reflection. Velocity of sound in the air is The intensity of polite con-
The property of sound reflec- 340 m/s. versation is 40 db-30 db.
tion is used by bats (which Sound consists of waves of During night the allowed in-
cannot see in the dark) for fly- alternate compression and tensity of sound in a hospital
ing during night . rarefaction that transmit ki- area is 40 db.
Visible light is electromagnetic netic energy through a me- The reverberation of sound in
wave in the range of frequen- dium. a hall results due to continued
cies 4.3×1014 to 7×1014 Hz. Frequency of a sound wave reflection
Electromagnetic waves do not is th e number of wa ve- Sound travels faster in steel
require any material medium lengths (vibrations) that are Sound can travel only
for their propagation, they completed in a given period through a medium. It cannot
can travel in vacuum. of time. travel through vacuum. It trav-
RADAR is the abbreviation of Doppler effect is the change els through solids, liquids and
Radio detection and ranging. in a sound wave’s frequency gases.
(and wavelength) that is Equipment for generating or
SOUND caused when the hearer and using sound includes musical
Sound is a travelling wave. sound source move relative instruments, hearing aids,
Sound requires medium to to each other.
sonar systems and sound
travel. Sounds are distinguished
reproduction and broad
Sound cannot travel through from each other by pitch (fre-
casting equipment. Many of
vacuum. quency), loudness (inten-
these use electro-acoustic
Study of sound is known as sity) and quality.
We ca n recogn i se our transducers such as
Acoustics.
friends from their voices due microphones and loud
Echo and reverberation are
to the quality of sound. speakers.
due to the reflection of sound.
For the production of echo Phonogram is a machine to
reproduce sound.
How do bats fly at
there should be a minimum
distance of 17m between us Th e speed of soun d de- night?
and the reflecting surface. pends on the medium the Bats can fly in the dark
Bats can fly in the dark waves pass through. because ultrasonic waves
because they can generate Sounds with frequencies produced by them during flying are
lower than the lowest limit reflected back to them from the
ultrasonic sound and if there
obstacles in their way and hence
is any hindrance in their way of human hearing (about 20
they can fly with out difficulty.
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LIGHT LASER is a source of intense James Clark Maxwell
monochromatic light in the ul- founded that lights are
‘The corpuscular theory’ traviolet, visible or infrared re- electromagnetic waves.
related to light was proposed gion of the spectrum. Wave theory of light was dis-
by Issac Newton in 1675. LASER beams are used in the covered by Christian
Study of light is known as op- medical field to perform minute Huygens.
tics. operations. Microwave Amplification by
Light an electromagnetic radia- LASER was discovered by Stimulated Emission of Radia-
tion. Theodore Maiman in 1960. tion was discovered by Charles
Through vacuum electro Visible spectrum is the band H. Towns.
magnetic waves travels with a of colours obtained when a ray
speed of 2.9979×108 m/s. of light passes through a
prism. change of direction of light
Paper, cardboard and stone are
Spectrum consists of seven when passing from one
examples for opaque substa- transparent substance to
nces (substance which do not colours viz Violet, Indigo, Blue,
another. When we put a stick
passess light). Green, Yellow, Orange and Red
in water it seems to be bended.
Substances which allow the (VIBGYOR).
It is due to refraction.
light to pass through are called Violet light is scattered most,
Diffraction is the spreading out
transparent substances. blue somewhat less, and green,
of waves of light as it passes
Eg: glass yellow and orange still less, in
through a narrow aperture.
that order.
The particle which is sup- The spreading of light rays
Red light is scattered least.
posed to travel faster than light towards the screen from a
is tachyon The beautiful colour of the
projector in film theatre is due
Tachyons were discovered by soap foam and oilspread water to diffraction.
E.C.G. Sudarshan. is due to interference of light. Dispersion is the splitting up
On a rainy afternoon a rainbow Red, green and blue are the of light ray into different
is seen in the east primary colours. colours. Rainbow is formed
A rainbow is always seen in the Green objects placed in red due to dispersion. The seven
opposite direction of the sun. light will appear black. colours of light has different
Rainbow is caused by reflec- In the spectrum violet light has wavelength. Hence when light
tion, refraction and dispersion short wave length and high fre- passes through a prism each
of light by the water particles quency. While red light has colour gets refracted at
present in the atmosphere. the highest wave length and different angles.
LASER is Light Amplification the least frequency. A bubble of water shines be-
by Stimulated Emission of Ra- A diamond sparkles due to to- cause of total internal reflec-
diation. tal internal reflection because tion.
Laser is the surface intense ra- it has a high refractive index. Refraction of light through air
diation. Scattering of light is respon- having very large temperature
sible for sky being seen as gradients causes a mirage.
Eye Openes: blue. This is because blue and A periscope is a device which
If two bulbs of power 40w and violet colour have short wave works by the principle of re-
length and hence scatter more. flection and refraction.
100w are joined in series and
MASER is Microwave Ampli- When there is thunder we see
connected to the domestic
fication by Stimulated Emis- the lightning first and hear the
electric supply terminals, the sion of Radiation. It was dis- thunder later because the ve-
40w bulb glows much more covered by Charles H. Towns. locity of light is greater than
brighter than the 100w bulb. Refraction is the sudden the velocity of sound.
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The term light year is a unit cal lens, instead of a spherical quence of the phenomenon of
employed in measuring Dis- lens. multiple refraction and inter-
tance. As the age advances, the ference
The rays which appears to elasticity of eye becomes very An astronaut on an earth sat-
originate outside the earth - much reduced. As a result the ellite will observe the sky as
The cosmic rays near point of eye recedes Black.
In a Doctor’s stethescope the gradually resulting in pres- The shortest height of a plane
sound is intensified because of byopia. It can be corrected by mirror required to show the full
reflection of sound convex glasses. size image of a person of height
Light from the sun reaches the When we observe distant L
earth in 8 minutes. ‘L’ cm is 2 cm .
objects, the focal length of the
Light travels fastest through eye lens increases and if we Dioptre is the unit of power of
vacuum. Through vacuum observe the objects near by, lenses.
light travels with a speed of the focal length of eye lens Concave mirror is used as a
3×108m/s. decreases. burning glass.
The shortest distance for clear Twenty - Twenty means per- For the rear view, motorists use
vision is 25 cm. convex mirror.
fect vision.
Myopia or short sightedness To concentrate light on the
The image formed on the retina of
teeth, the dentists use concave
is such a type of defect in the human eye is real and in- mirrors.
which one can see nearby ob- verted. Film is a part of the camera
jects clearly but is difficult to The lens in the human eye in which is analogous to the
see objects at long distances. convex. retina in the human eye.
Here image of the substance Pigments are substances used
falls in front of the retina. to colour paints, filters, plas- HEAT AND THER-
Myopia can be corrected by tics and other materials.
using a concave lens.
MODYNAMICS
The sky generally looks blue
Hypermetropia or long Absolute zero is the lowest
because the blue colour of
sightedness is such a type of possible temperature which is
short wave length is scattered
defect in which one can see equal to 0K or -273.16°C or -
more than the longer waves of
distant objects clearly whereas 459.69°F.
red light.
nearby objects look blurred. Temperature is the degree of
Here the image of the sub- It is true that the violet waves
hotness and heat is a form of
stance falls behind the retina. are dispersed, even more than
energy which increases the
Hypermetropia can be cor- the blue. However, the sky temperature of a body.
rected by using a does not appear violet be-
Specific heat capacity of a
convex lens of appropriate fo- cause the sunlight is relatively
substance is the amount of
cal length. weak in violet light. heat required to raise the tem-
Persons suffering from both Red colour has the longest perature of the substance
myopia and hypermetropia wavelength and shortest through 1°C
use bifocal lenses to with- frequency whereas violet As we go up in the atmo-
stand the condition. colour has the highest sphere, the temperature de-
Astigmatism: This defect is frequency and shortest wave creases.
due to the cornea not being length. Plasma is the fourth state of
spherical. This defect can be The formation of brilliant matter. Solid, liquid and gas are
corrected by using a cylindri- colours in soap film is a conse- other three states of matter.
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A black surface absorbs heat The law of magnetic poles
more than other colours. Eclipse states that like poles repel, un-
Cryogenics is concerned with Lunar eclipse occurs when the like poles attract.
the production, control and earth comes between the sun A freely suspended magnet
and the moon. While solar stands vertical at magnetic
application of extremely low
eclipe occurs when the moon south pole
temperatures.
comes between the sun and the “Ferromagnetic’’ sub-
At ultra high temperature mat- earth. stances are those which can
ter exist in plasma form 99% be magnetised to a great ex-
of matter in the Universe is in Water has maximum density at tent.
plasma form. 4o C. Water expands when it Iron steel, nickel ,cobalt,alloys
One calorie is the amount of freezes.Water occupies maxi- of these substances, and ga-
heat needed to raise the tem- mum volume at 0oC. dolinium are ferromagnetic
perature of 1gm of water by The Clinical Thermometer is substances.
1oC. specially designed to measure Paramagnetic materials have
Steam causes more severe human body temperature. feeble magnetic properties.
burns than water of the same Normal human body tempera- Platinum , solutions of salts
temperature because steam ture is 36.90 C (or 98.4°F) of iron, oxygen, manganese,
possess more heat energy due Melting point of mercury is - palladium, osmium etc are ex-
to latent heat than water. 39°C and that of alcohol is - amples of paramagnetic sub-
stances.
Transmission of heat from 115°C.
Inside a magnet, direction of
one point to another without The main source of energy in
magnetic lines of force is from
heating the medium is called the biosphere is solar energy
south to north.
radiation. which reach earth by means of
Tesla is the unit of strength
Cotton dresses are safe for radiation. of magnetic field.
wearing while cooking. Water expands on freezing. The instruments which are
Due to this reason when wa-
Conduction is the process of dependent of magnetic power
ter is filled in a bottle and is of electricity are fan, tele-
net energy transfer through a
allowed to freeze the bottle phone receiver, Dynamo etc.
substance without the move-
breaks, and during winter wa-
ment of the substance itself, ter pipes break in cold re-
but by molecular collisions. ELECTRICITY
gions.
Very poor conductor, such as
Laws of electrolysis were for-
glass are called Insulators. Air MAGNETISM mulated by Michael Faraday
is a good insulator.
(Father of electricity).
Mica is a good conductor of ‘Lodestones’, are natural mag- Electric fittings are earthed
heat, but a bad conductor of nets. because in case of a short cir-
electricity. Magnetic lines of force cannot
cuit, the current passes to the
Perspiration is maximum, when penetrate certain materials as
easily as they can penetrate air earth to overcome the dam-
temperature is high and air is ages.
or vacuum. Such materials are
humid. called “diamagnetic.’’ Filtered water at normal tem-
Evaporation takes place at all Diamagnetic materials have perature is better conductor of
temperatures and is accompa- negative susceptibility. electricity than filtered hot
nied by cooling. Bismuth, antimony, zinc, silver, water and distilled water.
Melting point of ice can be copper, gold, lead, water, al- Conductors are substances
raised by the decrease of pres- cohol, hydrogen and the in- that allow electric charges to
sure. ert gases are diamagnetic. flow through it .
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Metals and graphite are good force or voltage across oppo-
conductors of electricity. site forces when subjected to
Conductors Insulators
Silver is the metal having a mechanical strain and con- silver glass
lowest resistance. versely, to expand or contract copper rubber
The best conductor of elec- in size when subjected to an gold oil
tricity is silver. electromotive force. aluminum asphalt
Free electrons constitute cur- 220-230 volt is the voltage at iron fibre glass
rent in a conductor. which the alternate current steel porcelain
Insulators do not allow current (a.c) is supplied for house brass ceramic
to flow through it . hold use in India. bronze quartz
Current through a conductor The frequency of household mercury (dry) cotton
is the flow of electrons a.c in India is 50 hertz. graphite (dry) paper
through it. An inductor is a device which dirty water (dry) wood
Rubber, plastic, paper, glass, concrete plastic, air,
passes dc but blocks ac.
mica etc are insulators. diamond,
Alternating current is used
Elements such as silicon and pure water
germanium allow feeble cur- more widely than Direct Cur-
rents to pass through them rent.
resistance to the electric current
and they are known as semi- ac (alternating current) is more
and melts at a fairly low tem-
conductors. dangerous than dc (direct cur-
perature. The fuse wire must
Air without moisture (dry air) rent).
have a low melting point.
is an insulator. Usually the air inside an elec-
A fuse wire is used to prevent
tric bulb is removed because
The unit of electric charge is an unduly high electric cur-
when the filament (tungsten) is
Coloumb. It is equal to the rent to pass through a circuit.
heated in the presence of air, it
charge of 6.25×1018 electrons. Capacitor is a device used to
forms oxide by combining with
Ch arg e store electrical energy but it
Current oxygen present in the air and
is not a device to store elec-
Time readily gets fused.
tric charge.
A high current is produced in Nichrome is used as a heating
The emf or potential difference
a low resistance circuit when element in many appliance be-
measured in volt is called volt-
two wires of main comes in cause it has high resistivity and
age.
contact with each other. This it resists oxidation in air when
red hot. A convenient unit to measure
is called short circuiting.
An electric bulb makes a bang electric power is the kilowatt
Electric bulbs are filled with
when it is broken because there hour (kwh). This is often sim-
gases like argon, neon,
is a vacuum inside the electric ply called a unit.
nitrogen etc.
bulb. When the bulb is bro- 1 kwh = 1000 watt x 3600 sec-
When an isolated conducting
sphere is given a positive ken air rushes in at a great onds
charge, its mass decreases. speed from all sides to fill the In our houses, electric wiring
This is because, ‘giving vacuum and this produces the is done in parallel connection
positive change’means sound. so that all instruments in the
‘taking electrons out of it’. To avoid overloading, a de- house could get equal supply
The principle on which quartz vice called a ‘fuse’ is inserted of electricity.
crystal in watch works is peizo in series with the circuit. when two cells of e.m.f
electricity. Peizo electricity is The fuse is a piece of wire ‘V’volts each are connected
the property of some crystals made of financial Lead. in series the effective emf is
to develop an electromotive The fuse offers a great deal of V+V=2Vvolts
DeputyCollectorRankFile
When one cell is reversed ,the is connected in the live wire Germanium, silicon, carbon
effective emf is V-V=0 volts, Along with fluorescent tubes etc are semi conductors.
ie, zero volts. are fitted with a choke. Here A transistor transfers a sig-
In parallel connection of the choke coil steps up the nal from a low resistance to
equal emf cells,whatever be line voltage. high resistance .
the number of cells used the An electrical appliance is The word transistor came
effective emf will be equal to earthed to prevent shock from the process of transfer
the emf of a single cell. One should not connect a and the resistor.
When we want a stronger cur- number of electrical appli- ELINT is electronic intelli-
rent for a longer time parallel ances to the same power gence.
connection is used. socket because this can dam- Triode was invented by Lee
A source of emf containing age the domestic wiring due De Forest.
two or more cells is called a to over heating IC chip is a circuit which
battery. A capacitor (condenser) is performs the functions of
In a dry cell the negative used to store electric charge transistors, diodes, resistors,
electrode(cathode) is zinc and "Hydro Power" is the term condensers etc altogether.
positive electrode(anode) is used for electricity produced The largest IC chip manu-
carbon rod. through water facturing company in the
The emf of a voltaic cell is Electricity for domestic pur- world is INTEL.
1volt. pose is measured in kWh Electrons are carriers of
The emf of a dry cell is 1.5 The power of ordinary torch current in a npn transistor.
volts. cell is 1.5 volt. Holes are the carriers of
Colour of the light of sodium In the rechargable batteries current in a pnp transistor.
vapour lamp is yellow. used in touch light, electric- The frequencies transmitted
Colour of the light of chlorine shavers etc. nickel and cad- by a TV station is called
vapour lamp is green. mium are used as electrodes. channel.
Light of nitrogen vapour lamp Soft X-rays are X-rays having
is red. ELECTRONICS high wavelength and low
Light of mercury vapour lamp energy. As these are absorbed
Electronics is the study of
is white. by body tissues they are not
nature, control and applica-
Light of neon vapour lamp is used in taking photographs of
tion of electrons.
orange red. internal organs.
Light of hydrogen vapour Modem is Modulator De- X-rays having short
lamp is blue. modulator. wavelength but high energy
In our houses we get 220V Rectifiers are used to convert are called hard X-rays. These
ac.The value 220 represents Alternating Current (AC) to are used in the photography
effective voltage Direct Current (DC). of internal organs.
The advantage of ac over dc An electronic oscillator is a In order to study internal
is that it can be transmitted device which converts DC atomic structure of crystals,
over long distances with mini- energy into AC energy. we use X-rays
mum power loss Silicon is used in solar cells. “IC” chips for computers are
Resistance of carbon decrea Materials whose resistivity usually made of Silicon
ses with increase of tempera- lies in between conductors The process which makes the
ture. and insulators are called semi current to pass in the same
In an electrical circuit a fuse conductors. direction is called rectification
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TELECOMMUNI- Alexander Graham Bell in-
CATION vented the telephone.
A revolution in wireless tele- The first commercial tele-
communications began in the phone services were set up in
first decade of the 20th cen- 1878 and 1879 on both sides
tury, with Guglielmo Marconi of the Atlantic.
winning the Nobel Prize in Telex means Teleprinter Ex-
Physics in 1909 for his pio- change.
neering developments in wire- INTELSAT (International
less radio communications. Telecommunication Satellite
The first commercial electrical Organisation), with its head-
telegraph was constructed by quarters in Washington DC,
Sir Charles Wheatstone and was established on February
Sir William Fothergill Cooke, 12, 1973. It operates space
and its use began on 1839. equipment and earth stations
Optical fibre provides cheaper
owned by telecommunication
bandwidth for long distance
entities in each country. communication
INTELSAT’S 13 satellite sys-
tem provides about two-
thirds of the world’s interna-
Samuel Morse
tional telecommunication ser-
Samuel Finley Breese
vices to more than 140 coun- Morse was an American
tries including India. contributor to the invention
In 1901, Guglielmo Marconi Father of cybernetics - of a single-wire telegraph
established wireless communi- Norbert Weiner system based on European
cation between St. John's, RADAR is Radio Detection telegraphs, co-inventor of
Newfoundland and Poldhu, and Ranging. the Morse code.
Cornwall (England), earning RADAR is a device that uses
him the Nobel Prize in Phys-
radio waves to detect the po-
ics for 1909 NUCLEAR PHYSICS
sition of objects such as
aeroplanes, missiles etc. A Geiger Counter or Geiger -
The Nobel Prize in Radar was invented byAlbert H. Muller Counter is used for de-
Physics 2010 Taylor and Leo C. Young. tecting and measuring radia-
The Nobel Prize in Physics 2010 The first telecommunications tion.
was awarded jointly to Russian
device was the telegraph. Radio-Carbon Dating or Car-
born scientists, Andre Geim and
bon dating, widely employed to
Konstantin Novoselov “for ground A television camera takes 25 or
30 electronic photographs determine the age of fossils of
breaking experiments regarding
(called frames) of a scene ev- animals or plants. The radio-iso-
the two dimensional material
tope carbon-14 is used in Car-
graphene”, a super-thin and ery second.
bon dating process.
strong form of carbon with high Hybrid computers are a com-
conductivity that can be used for Chain reaction is a self sus-
bination of the analog and taining series of nuclear fis-
touch screens and light panels.
digital computers. sions, each one started by
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n
Nuclear Fuosino 232 which becomes lead-208;
and Fissi rubidium-87 which changes
avily wei gh ed into strontium-87; and potas-
ess of fo rmation of a he ed
The pr oc or e low wei gh sium-40 which changes into
s by th e fu si on of two or m th e m os t likely
nucl eu fu si on . O n earth, argon-40.
nucl ea r rium and
nucleus is ca lled –T ri ti um reaction . Deute Nuclear fusion is also known
is Deute ri um of nucl eus of
fusion reaction hy dr og en . The splitting as thermo-nuclear reaction
th isotopes of ed nucl ear
Tritium are bo vi ng eq ua l weigh t is ca ll because it demands extremely
o pieces ha Nuclear
an atom into tw di sc ov er ed nuclear fission. high temperatures.
ahn in 19 39 ons in the
fission. Otto H a m as si ve nu cl eus into phot A breeder reactor is that which
litt in g of ic
fi ssion is the sp other subatom produces more fissionable
m a ra ys , fr ee neutrons, an d ese tw o
form of gam between th material than it burns.
m ai n differen ce
pa rt icles. The ssion is the sp
li tt ing of an The enormous energy re-
se s is th at fi
pr oces more smaller on
es leased in an atomic explosion
atom in to two or th e is due to the conversion of
while fusi on is
mass into energy.
Neutron is used to trigger-off
neutrons emitted in a previ- the nuclear fission reaction.
Alpha particles () are posi- Atom bomb is an example of
ous fission.
tively charged. Basically nuclear fission reaction, while
Proton was discovered by rays are Helium nuclei.
Rutherford. Hydrogen bomb is that of
Gamma rays are electromag- nuclear fusion reaction.
Electron was discovered by netic radiation emitted by the More energy is produced in a
J.J.Thomson. nuclei of radioactive ele- fusion reaction than fission
James Chadwick discovers the ments. reaction.
neutron. A tracer is minute amount of The monozite found abunda-
Out of the three radiations - a radioisotope, added to a ntly in coastal areas of Kerala
alpha, beta, and gamma, large amount of non-radioac- contains thorium.
gamma radiation is most pen- tive isotopes of elements. The temperature required for
etrating. Half-life is the time taken for the maintenance of fusion is
Enriched uranium is uranium half of any amount of a radio- about 350000000°C.
with more of the isotope of active isotope to decay.
Uranium - 235. Radiocarbon 'carbon - 14' ATOMIC
The age of rocks may be cal- has a half-life of 5,730 years. REACTORS
culated through radioactive Isotopes used in dating rocks
dating using uranium iso- include Uranium-235 which Nuclear power is the fourth-
topes. largest source of electricity in
becomes lead-207; thorium-
India after thermal, hydro and
Power Plant Location State renewable sources of elec-
Narora Atomic Power Station Narora Uttar Pradesh tricity.
Rajasthan Atomic Power Station Rawatbhata Rajasthan In 2010, India has 19 nuclear
Tarapur Atomic Power Station Tarapur Maharashtra power plants in operation
generating 4,560 MW while 4
Kakrapar Atomic Power Station Kakrapar Gujarat
other are under construction.
Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant Kudankulam Tamilnadu
The first atomic reactor in In-
Madras Atomic Power Station Kalpakkam Tamilnadu
dia is 'Apsara' in Trombay
Kaiga Nuclear Power Plant Kaiga Karnataka (Maharashtra)
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NPCIL The original fuel in the fast travelled by light in one year
Nuclear Power Corporation breeder reactor is plutonium through space.
of India Limited is a Public and uranium oxides or car- 1 light year = 9.46×10 12
Sector Enterprise under the Kilometres
bides.
administrative control of the 1 Parsec = 3.26 light years
Department of Atomic Energy Cadmium rod is used in a re- A galaxy is a vast collection of
(DAE), Government of India. actor to absorb neutrons. billions of stars, dust and
The main objective of NPCI Willers Frank Liby discov- hydrogen gas isolated in space
is operating the atomic power ered carbon dating. from similar systems.
stations and implementing Coal is the most important raw Galaxies are the building
the atomic power projects for blocks of the universe.
material for thermal power
generation of electricity
plant. The sun and the eight planets
Flyash is a waste product of belong to the milky way galaxy,
whose Indian name is Akash-
India's first breeder reactor is thermal power plants.
Ganga.
set up at the place known as Cobalt-60 is commonly used
Kalpakkam in Tamil Nadu. Milky way is a spiral shaped
in radio therapy because it galaxy. There are nearly 1011
The early reactors were emits beta rays which has stars in the galaxy.
known as Atomic Piles.
more energy than the X-rays. Among numerous dim stars in
Heavy water , graphite and the sky, there are some groups
neutrons are used as modera- SPACE PHYSICS of bright stars. These groups
tor in nuclear reactors. of stars stars. These groups
Coolant is a fluid used in Space exploration began with of stars forms certain shapes
nuclear reactors to remove the the launching of Russia’s or patterns and are called
heat produced in the core. Sputnik-1 into space on constellations. The conste-
The coolant used in fast October 4, 1957. llations were given the name
breeder reactors is generally Sputnik-2 carried a dog of the figures they resembled.
liquid sodium. ‘Laika’to space. There are 89 constellations.
Heavy water is used as a cool- The U.S.A. entered the space The largest of these is Hydra,
ant as well as a moderator arena on January 31, 1958 with which contains at least 68 stars
for nuclear reactors. the launching of the Explorer-1. visible to the naked eye.
The moderator in a nuclear This satellite is credited with A satellite is a heavenly body
making the important that rotates around a planet.
reactor slows down the fast
discovery of the Van Allen Venus is the brightest object
moving neutrons.
radiation belts around the in the night sky, leaving out the
The commonly used modera- earth, where electrons and moon. It is visible either in the
tors are graphite, heavy water protons from the sun are early morning in the eastern
and berilium. trapped by earth’s magnetic sky or in the early evening in
The main source of solar en- field. the western sky and is called
ergy is nuclear fusion. The extremely large distances “morning star” and “evening
between the various heavenly star”.
The fast breeder reactor gets bodies like the stars and Sun is our nearest star. It is a
its name from the fact that it planets can be expressed in hot sphere of gas - 74%
utilizes excess free neutrons terms of two units namely light hydrogen, 25% helium and 1%
to breed new fissionable ma- year and parsec. other elements.
terial. One light year is the distance The sun is at a distance of 8
DeputyCollectorRankFile
light minutes from the earth. ie, Communication Technology is light travels in one year at the
it takes about 8 minutes for located at Ahmedabad. speed of 3,00,000 km/sec.
light to travel from the sun to The credit for starting space Astronomical Unit is another
the earth. science research in India goes unit of distance in space. It is
An asteroid is an irregular, to Vikram Sarabhai. the mean distance between
rocky hunk, small both in size Moon has no atmosphere earth and Sun. One light year
and in mass compared to a because its gravity is not contains nearly 63282 Astro-
plannet. sufficient for any atmosphere nomical Units.
In the belt which lies between to held on to it. Par sec (Parallactic second) is
Mars and Jupiter there are All stars have idential chemi- yet another unit of distance in
thousands of minor planets or cal composition but they differ
asteroids. space. One par second is equal
in surface temperatures. This to 3.08x1016m.
Ceres is the largest known is the reason for the difference
asteroid. Lambert is the unit of inten-
in spectra of stars.
Meteor is the streak of light sity of light.
The outward stream of protons
observed in the sky. They are Pascal is the unit of pressure.
and electrons on the surface
formed when a particle of the sun during solar flares and Angstrom is the unit of the
matter enters the earth’s sun-spot activity constitute wave length of light.
atmosphere and become the solar wind. Poise is the unit of viscosity
incandescent as a result of of fluid.
friction with atmospheric UNITS AND Curie and Rutherford are unit
atoms and molecules. Meteor MEASUREMENTS of radio activity.
are also called shooting stars.
Unit of Plane angle is radian
Stars twinkle because of The purest form of gold is 24 Unit of solid angle is steradian
refraction of light. carats. Ornaments are usually Newton is the unit of force
The tail of a comet points away made of 22 carat gold. One Joule is the unit of energy and
from the sun. This is due to metric carat is equal to 200
work
radiation pressure. milligram.
Unit of power is watt
The colour of a star is an The weight of precious
indication of its temperature. Hertz is the unit of frequency
gems are also measured Coulomb is the unit of electric
The plannet that has got a well
developed set of rings is in carat. charge
saturn. One gallon is equal to 4.546 Unit of electric capacitance is
India’s satellite launching litres. farad
station is situated at Srihari- One horse power is equal to 746 Ohm is the unit of electric re-
kota. watts. sistance
When a person is orbiting in a Light year is a unit of distance Becquerel is the unit of radio
used in astronomy. activity
satellite, his weight becomes
zero. Light year is the distance that Henry is the unit of inductance
The ink of the pen leaks out in
an aeroplane because pressure Several systems of unit have been in use for describing measurement.
of ink inside is more than the The common systems are the C.G.S. system (centimeter, gram, second);
ambient pressure. the F.P.S. system (foot, pound, second) which is the British system, the
The Space Application Centre MKS system (meter, kilogram & second) and now internationally
for training in Satellite accepted is the System International Units, abbreviated as S.I. units.
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Quantity Unit Weber is the unit of magnetic
Length .......................................................................... Metre (m) flux
Mass ...................................................................... Kilogram (kg) Lumen is the unit of luminous
Time ........................................................................... Second (s) flux
Electric Charge .......................................................... Ampere (A) Lux is the unit of illuminance
Temperature ................................................................. Kelvin (K) Unit of electric conductance
Frequency.................................................................... Hertz (Hz) is Siemens
Force, Weight ............................................................. Newton (N) Joule is the unit of work.
Work, Heat .......................................................................... Joule Dyne is the unit of force.
Power, Radiant flux ........................................................ Watt (W) Newton is yet another unit of
Pressure, Stress ........................................................... Pascal (Pa) force.
5
Electric charge or flux ..................................................... Coulomb (C) One newton = 10 dynes
Electrical potential difference, Electromotive force (emf) ..... Volt (V) Centigrade, Fahrenheit are
Electric resistance, ................................................................ Ohm the units of temperature.
Electric capacitance ........................................................ Farad (F) Degree is the unit of angle.
Magnetic flux ............................................................ Weber (Wb) Mho is the unit of conduc-
Magnetic flux density, magnetic induction ....................... Tesla (T) tance.
Inductance ................................................................... Henry (H) Fathom is the unit of depth of
Electrical conductance ..................................................... Siemens the sea. One fathom is equal
Radioactivity......................................................... Becquerel (Bq) to 6 feet.
Catalytic activity ................................................................. Katal In India, National Physical
Thermodynamic temperature .................................. Degree Celsius Laboratory of NewDelhi is re-
Derived Units sponsible for the maintenance
Area ................................................................. square metre (m2) and improvement of physical
Volume ....................................................................... cubic metre standards of length and time.
Speed, velocity........................................ metre per second (m·s-1) Solar day is the period be-
Acceleration ................................. metre per second squared(m/s2) tween noons of two consecu-
Jerk ............................................... metre per second cubed (m·s-3) tive days.
Angular velocity .............................................. radian per second
Momentum .................................................. Newton second (N·s) BRANCHES OF
Torque, moment of force ......................................... Newton metre
Wavenumber ...................................................... Reciprocal metre SCIENCE
density, mass density ................. kilogram per cubic metre (kg·m-3)
Actinology
specific volume ....................................... cubic metre per kilogram
entropy ...................................................... joule per kelvin (J·K-1) A branch of science which
electric field strength ............................................... volt per metre deals with the chemical effects
magnetic field strength ....................................... ampere per metre of electromagnetic radiation.
molar energy .......................................................... joule per mole Aerodynamics
specific energy .................................................. joule per kilogram The study of the motion and
energy density ............................................. joule per cubic metre control of solid bodies (eg. air
surface tension .................................................. newton per metre craft, rockets, missiles etc) in
thermal conductivity..................................... watt per metre kelvin air.
dynamic viscosity .................................................. pascal second Aeronautics
electric charge density ............................ coulomb per cubic metre A branch of science which
electric current density ............................ ampere per square metre deals with flight through air.
radian ..................................................................................... rad Austro physics
steridan ................................................................................. rad2 The branch of physics con-
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cerned with the physical prop- forces which change their which deals with effect of
erties of celestial bodies and motion. motion without reference to
the interaction between mat- Electronics mass or force.
ter and energy with them. A branch of science dealing Optics
Astronautics with the study and develop- It is the branch of physics
The scientific study of travel ment of circuit involving ther-
dealing with the study of light.
outside the Earth’s atmo- mionic values, semi conduc-
tors and other electrical com- Rheology
sphere. The study of the deformation
ponents like resistance, ca-
Audiology and flow of matter.
pacitors, inductances etc.
The science of hearing Solid state Physics
Electrostatics
Ballistics The study of the effects as- The branch of physics which
The study of path (motion) of sociated with electric charge deals with the nature and prop-
projectiles. at rest. erties of matter in the solid
Cosmology Fluidics state.
The science of the nature, ori- The study and use of fluid Statistical Mechanics
gin and history of the uni- flow through pipes in an analo-
The study of the mechanical
verse. gous way to the flow of elec-
Crystallography properties of large assemblies
tric current through circuits.
The study of structure of Holography of particles or components in
crystals. Science of recording three di- terms of statistics.
Dynamics mensional image of an object. Tribogy
The study of the behaviour of Kinematics The study of friction and lu-
bodies under the action of The branch of mechanics brication.
Famous scientists and invention
Galileo Galilei ........ Discovered the phases of Venus, Alessandro Volta .......................... Battery (Electric)
the four satellites of Jupiter Io, Europa, Kirkpatrick Macmillan .................................. Bicycle
Callisto, and Ganymede Tennant ...................................... Bleaching Powder
Christiaan Huygens ............................ Wave theory Edwin T. Holmes ................................ Burglar Alarm
Sir Isaac Newton ............. Newton's Laws of Motion, John Harrison ..................................... Chronometer
Universal gravitation, Calculus Nicolas & Jean Lumiere ................................ Cinema
Benjamin Franklin ......... Discovered the two electric Wilmut ...................................... Cloning, (Mammal)
charges, 'positive' and 'negative'. Rudolf Diesel .................................... Diesel Engine
James Watt ........... Modern condenser steam engine Thomas Alva Edison ........................... Electric Lamp
Michael Faraday ............ Electro magnetic induction Henry W. Seely ................................... Electric Iron
Sir Chandrasekhara Raman ..... Scattering of light and J.J.Thomson. ............................................ Electron
found the Raman effect Lewis E. Waterman ............................. Fountain Pen
Nikola Tesla ............................... Alternating current Thomas Alva Edison ........................... Gramophone
Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit .................. Determined the Denis Gason .......................................... Holograph
temperature scale called Fahrenheit scale Edward Teller ................................. Hydrogen Bomb
Christian Doppler ............................. Doppler effect Sir Frank Whittle .................................... Jet Engine
James Chadwick ......................................... neutron Theodore Maiman ......................................... Laser
J. Robert Oppenheimer ......................... Atom Bomb Elisha G. Otis ................................ Lift (Mechanical)
Dalton ............................................. Atomic Theory Benjamin Franklin ..................... Lighting Conductor
Carrier .......................................... Air Conditioning John Logie Baird .................. Mechanical Television
Evangelista Torricelli ............................... Barometer Rutherford .................................................. Proton-
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BIOLOGY
Father of Biology : Aristotle. Father of Important Branches
Biology is a natural science
concerned with the study of
Aristotle ............................................. Father of Natures History/
life and living organisms,
including their structure, Father of Biology
function, growth, origin, Alexander Fleming ....................................... Father of Antibiotics
evolution, distribution, and Carolus Linnaeus .......................................... Father of Taxonomy
taxonomy.
The term ‘ Biology’ is coined Edward Jenner ........................................... Father of Immunology
by a French naturalist Jean Louis Pasteur .......................................... Father of Microbiology
Lamarck. Rudolph Virchow .......................................... Father of Pathology
Fundamental axioms of modern
Robert Hook ................................................ Father of Sightology
biology:
1. Cells are the basic unit of Robert Koch ............................................. Father of Bacteriology
life William Harvey .................................. Father of Blood Circulation
2. New species and inherited W.M.Stanley ................................................... Father of Virology
traits are the product of
Ivan Pavlov ..................................... Father of Conditioned Reflex
evolution
3. Genes are the basic unit of Ernst Von Baer .............................. Father of Modern Embryology
heredity
4. An organism will regulate Human cells have 23 pairs definite membrane bound
its internal environment to (46number) of chromosomes. nucleus Eg : Bacteria, Blue -
maintain a stable and The cell with longest life span green algae. In eukaryotes,
constant condition in our body is Nerve Cells there is a nucleus with definite
5. Living organisms consume The average size of the cell is double membrane.
and transform energy. Plasma membranes are
3-30 microns (1 micron = 1/1000
composed of phospholipids
The CELL mm).
and protein.
1. Cell wall - found only in plant
Cell is the smallest and cells. It consists of non-living Cytosol - it is the soluble
fundamental unit of life. substances. material in embryonic cell in
The smallest cell size is of a eg: lignin, pectin, cellulose etc. which various organelles are
bacteria. 2. Cell membranes (plasmale- embedded.
The largest cell is of an ostrich mma) 3. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
egg. It is the outer membrane of the A network of tubes or channels
The largest human cell is the cytoplasm found both in of membrane in the cytoplasm
ovum. (.2mm) animals and plants. It is made which helps in protein
Nerve cell(neuron) is the of protein. synthesis and conduction of
longest cell. In prokaryotes, there is no materials.
DNA & RNA 11. Nucleus: The nucleus controls
all cell activities and enclose
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid )and RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) are the nucleoplasm. Nucleus is
two different nucleic acids found in the cells of every living organ-
responsible for transfer of
ism. Both have significant roles to play in cell biology.
heredity characteristics.
DNA is found mainly in the nucleus of the cell, while RNA is found
12. Centrosome: A rather dense
mainly in the cytoplasm of the cell.
DNA contains the genetic codes to make RNA and the RNA in turn area of protoplasm, lies close
then contains the codes for the primary sequence of amino acids to nucleus.
to make proteins. Plant cell is different from
Within the cell structure, DNA is organized into structures called animal cell as it contains cell
chromosomes, which are duplicated during cell division. These wall surrounding plasma
chromosomes would then release the genetic codes that will be membrane and chloroplasts
transcribed and carried by the RNA to the ribosome. The ribosome and devoid of centrioles which
will then synthesize new proteins that will help the body grow. is seen only in animal cells.
Adenosine Triphosphate
(ATP) provides energy for all
double- membrane bound kinds of activities of a cell.
4. Ribosomes: Externally small, organelle. The inner membrane
ATP is called the ‘universal
dense, granular, spherical is thrown into folds called
cristae to increase the surface biological energy currency'.
bodies found in free state in ATP synthesis takes place in
the cytoplasm, composed of area.
8. Peroxisomes and glyoxysomes mitochondrion.
RNA and proteins. They help
are known as microbodies. Energy is stored in the mito-
in synthesis of proteins.
They are enzyme bags. chondria as ATP molecules.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
9. Lysosomes are known as The physical basis of life is
is the normal ‘ER’ with
“suicide bags”, as they 'protoplasm'.
ribosomes attached to it.
contain hydrolysing enzymes. Chromosome is made up of
Nucleus contains nucleoli and
Occasionally they digest the DNA & Proteins.
nucleoli are the centres of the whole cell or part of it. Chromosomes, other than the
synthesis of ribosomal RNA.
10. Plastids: Small bodies found sex chromosomes, are called
5. Golgi bodies: Bag like in the cells of higher plants. autosomes.
structures formed of They are of many types.
membranes. Their functions The ribosomes are chiefly
Chloroplasts : are the centres concerned with the synthesis
include secretion of various of photosynthetic activity. It is
substances. of protein.
found only in photosynthetic
6. Vacuole: A fluid filled sac plant cell. Chloroplast is a Types of cells
within a cell. The watery fluid green plastid.
enclosed in the vacuole is Prokaryotes: Prokaryotes lack
Chloroplasts have double a nucleus (though they do
called ‘Cell Sap’. It is slightly membrane, lamellae or
acidic or neutral. Osmo- have circular DNA) and other
thylakoids which absorb solar
regulation is the main function membrane-bound organelles
energy and pigments like
7. Mitochondria: Rod like or chlorophylls and carotenoids. (though they do contain
spherical, semi solid structures ribosomes). Bacteria and
i) Leucoplasts: Colourless
containing DNA. They starch storing particles Archaea are two domains of
synthesise A.T.P (Adenosine ii) Chromoplasts: Are prokaryotes.
Tri phosphate) coloured particles which Eukaryotes: Eukaryotes, on
Mitochondria is the power give colour to fruits and the other hand, have distinct
house of the cell. It is also a flowers. nuclei bound by a nuclear
membrane and membrane-
bound organelles (mitochon Diseases caused by Bacteria
dria, chloroplasts, lysosomes,
Leprosy, Tetanus, Whooping Cough, Typhoid Fever, Paratyphoid
rough and smooth endoplas
Fever, Cholera, Plague, Tuberculosis, Meningitis, Bacterial
mic reticulum, vacuoles). In
Pneumonia, Diarrhoea, Diphtheria, Bacterial dysentry, Anthrax,
addition, they possess
Syphilis and Gonorrhoea.
organized chromosomes
which store genetic material.
Fungal Diseases
Cell Division Microorganisms live in all parts
of the biosphere where there in Human
Cell division is the process by
is liquid water, including soil, Ringworm
which a parent cell divides into
two or more daughter cells. Cell hot springs, on the ocean floor, Tinea
division is usually a small high in the atmosphere and Athelete’s foot
segment of a larger cell cycle. deep inside rocks within the Madura foot
Cell cycle is composed of three Earth's crust. Dhobie itch
phases- interphase, mitosis, Bacteria were first observed by
cytokinesis. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in
Mitosis means the division of 1676. A virus is a small infectious
nucleus and cytokinesis The name bacterium was agent that can replicate only
means the cytoplasmic introduced much later, by inside the living cells of
division. Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg organisms.
Two kinds of Cell Division : in 1838. All viruses are nucleoprotein
Mitosis and Meiosis. Bacteria are microscopic particles and contain either
Mitosis occur in body cells, unicellular prokaryotic DNA or RNA. The genetic
results in formation of two organism and lack of membrane material inside the viruses is
daughter cells with equal bound nucleus and organelles. protected by a protein coat
number of chromosomes. Bacteria are eventually placed called ‘capsid’.
Meiosis Occurs in repro in a Kingdom Monera. Viruses lack the cellular
ductive cells. It causes a Reproduction in bacteria is organisation of the living
reduction in number of largely asexual by binary organism, but make use of the
chromosomes in the cell. fission. cellular machinery of the host
Respiration of bacteria are cell to multiply themselves.
Micro Organisms
aerobic and anaerobic. A complete viral particle
The study of microorganisms Bacteria display a wide capable of infection is called a
is called microbiology. diversity of shapes and sizes, ‘virion’.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek's called morphologies. ‘Viroids’ are newly found
discovered microorganisms in Bacteriophages are viruses group of pathogenic agents,
1675, using a microscope of his eating (destroying) bacteria much smaller than the viruses.
own design. and were invented by The study of viruses is known
Microorganisms are very d’Herelle. as virology, a sub-speciality of
diverse; they include bacteria, Bacteriology is the study of microbiology.
fungi, archaea, and protists; bacteria. The study of viruses is known
microscopic plants (green ‘Virus’ the term is coined by as virology, a sub-speciality of
algae); and animals such as M.W. Beigerinck, a Dutch microbiology.
plankton and the planarian. microbiologist. L.S.D. (Lysergic acid diethy-
vital for
lamide) is obtained from a Photosynthesis is Pho-
Smallest seeds Orchid seeds
fungi, called Ergot. all ae robic life on Earth. Largest leaf Victoria regia
ocess that
Smallest Cell - Pleuro Pneumo- tosynthesis is a pr India's national flower Lotus
oxide into
nia Like Organism (PPLO). It converts carbon di Largest flower Rafflesia
ds, espe-
is a mycoplasma. or ga ni c compoun Smallest flower Wolffia
the energy
cially sugars, using Oldest living plant of the world
HIV is an RNA virus. osynthesis
from sunlight. Phot
algae, and Pinus
Smallest living thing - Virus occurs in plan ts,
ria. Pho-
many species of bacte Study of trees- dentrology
Kingdom tosynthesis uses ca
rbon diox- Largest trees in plant world -
Classification asing oxy-
ide and water, rele Conifers
uct.
Five kingdom classification was gen as a waste prod
developed by R.H.Whittaker. Nitrogen Fixation means
The five kingdoms are Monera, phyta (slime molds) and
Eumycophyta (True fungi) conversion of atmospheric
Protista, Fungi, Plants and
The true fungi is characterised nitrogen into useful
Animals.
by a definite cellular body compounds like nitrates with
Kingdom Monera composed of filaments called the help of bacteria and fungi.
Monera includes prokaryotic mycelium. The individual The biological nitrogen
cells. Eg : True bacteria, Fun- mycelium filaments is called fixation is done by nitrogen
gus-like bacteria i.e. ‘Autono- hyphae. fixing bacteria such as
my cetales’, Blue - green algae Water moulds, bread moulds, Rhizobium Nostoc and
(cyanobacteriae). club fungi are examples. Azetobactor.
Antibiotic drugs like strepto- Ascospores or basidiospores Plants absorb the element
mycin, erythromycin etc. are are the products of sexual nitrogen in the form of nitrates.
obtained from actinomycetes is reproduction in Fungi. Cyanobacteria is a blue green
Kingdom Monera. algae.
The Plant Kingdom The profuse amount of pollen
Kingdom Protista
Plants are the primary grains liberated by pine forests
They are unicellular or colonial producers in nature. at the time of pollination during
eukaryotes. Reproduction is Flora is the plants of a particular
the months of March-April is
both sexual and asexual. region and Fauna is the animals referred to as ‘Sulphur
Motility is by Flagella, have
of a particular region. Flora and Showers.’’
diverse nutritional habits. Eg :
Fauna together constitute the Araucaria embricate, a
Euglena, Dinoflagellates,
plants and animals of a region. gymnosperm plant is commonly
diatoms etc.
The part of the earth and its known as ‘Monkey’s Puzzle’
Kingdom Fungi atmosphere that is capable of Litmus is obtained from a
Multi nucleate, non- supporting living things is the lichen.
photosynthetic, non- motile biosphere. Lichen is an association of
organisms. Reproduction is by Biosphere is divided into fungus and algae.
both asexual and sexual means. Lithosphere, Hydrosphere, Turmeric is obtained from the
Two divisions - myxomyco Atmosphere etc. stem of plant.
Cloves are dried flower buds
of plant syzygium aromaticum.
King of fruits - Mango
Potato is a tuber crop.
Poorman’s orange - Tomato
The native place of potato is
Poorman's wood - bamboo
America
in their environment are called
Subdisciplines of botanyp production
saprophytes
Classification of Plant Kingdom
of plant science to cro
Agronomy: Application 1. Rhodophyta (Red algae): Are
orts, and hornworts
Bryology: Mosses, liverw or value mostly multicellular marine
of plants of economic use
Economic botany: Study nts plants. Their reddish colour is
p between humans and pla
Ethnobotany: Relationshi stu dies due to a pigment, phycoery
ent and related
Forestry: Forest managem thrin.
plants
Horticulture: Cultivated 2. Phaeophyta (Brown Algae):
of lichens
Lichenology: The study Are multicellular marine plants
Paleobotany: Fossi l pla nts growing on rocks or attached
res to sea shores. Their brownish
Palynology: Pollen and spo
colour is due to xanthophyll
Phycology: Algae d ch em ical
secondary ch emistry an pigment called fucoxanthin.
Phytochemistry: Plant
3. Chlorophyta (Green Algae):
proce sse s
eases Are a group of bright green
Phytopathology: Plant dis
d tissue structure aquatic, unicellular plants.
Plant anatomy: Cell an
nts in the environment 4. Bryophyta: Simple, non
Plant ecology: Role of pla vascular small plants grow in
inheritance in plants
Plant genetics: Genetic moist places. Thallus like plant
ucture and life cycles
Plant morphology: Str body is attached to the soil by
functions of plants
Plant physiology: Life nts rhizoids.
ification and naming of pla
Plant systematics: Class eg: Liver worts, horn worts,
mosses, etc.
one is Wolffia (duck weed).
Vanilla, a flavouring material, is 5. Lycopodophyta (club
The largest sperms among
extracted from the fruit of an mosses): Multicellular
plants are found in gymno-
orchid ‘Vanilla Planlifolia.’ sperms. terrestrial plants with vascular
Rubber is obtained from the In plants gaseous exchange tissues.
latex of Hevea brasiliensis. occur through stomata. 6. Arthrophyta (Horsetails): Are
The milky juice that oozes from The roots which do not grow multicellular plants with
some trees like rubber is known from a main root (radicle) but vascular tissues. Arthrophyta
as latex. directly from the stem are called are largely an extinct group
Cotton, jute, silk, wool, etc are adventitious roots. represented by a single living
natural fibres and nylon is DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) genus, the Equisetum.
and RNA (Ribo Nucleic Acid) 7. Pterophyta (Ferns): Are
artificial fibre.
are the two kinds of nucleic
Sugarcane is a type of grass. multicellular plants with
acids.
The fruit sugar is fructose. vascular tissues; Here seeds
In a plant cell, DNA is found in
Tissue culture is the method of chloroplast, mitochondria and are not produced.
producing plants from minute nucleus. Gymnosperm
plant fragments. Nepenthes, sundew, drosera, 8. Cycadophyta: Are multicellular
The wall of the plant cell is etc. are some of the terrestrial plants with vascular
made of cellulose.The cellu- insectivorous plants. tissues. The stem is large and
lose cannot be digested by Insectivorous plants obtain woody, leaves are large and
human alimentary canal. nitrogen from animal bodies. fern like.
The largest flower in the world Organisms which obtain their eg: cycas, zamia (sago tree),
is Rafflesia and the smallest food from non living material etc.
9. Conifers: Are multicellular Cultivations sine triphosphate (ATP).
plants with well developed Phosphorous is important in
Sericulture is rearing of silk
tissues. Leaves are simple, plant bioenergetics.
worms.
smaller and needle like. Potassium regulates the
Horticulture is the cultivation of
eg: Cedrus (deodar), Taxus opening and closing of the
(Yew), Pine flowers, fruits and ornamental
stomata by a potassium ion
10. Angiosperms: More advanced plants.
pump.
flowering plants with well Pisciculture is the art of rearing
Nitrogen is an essential
developed vascular tissues. fishes.
component of all proteins.
They make up more than half Silviculture is forest planting.
Apiculture means honey making. Sulphur is a structural
of all known species of plants.
component of some amino
Flowering plants are divided Viticulture is grape cultivation.
acids and vitamins, and is
into two classes – Dicotyle Vermiculture is breeding of
dons (Dicots), Monocotyle essential in the manufacturing
worms useful to farmers.
dons (monocots). of chloroplasts.
Floriculture is cultivation of
Calcium regulates transport of
Other Classifications flowering plants.
other nutrients into the plant
Terrestrial: Plants which Arboriculture means cultivation
and is also involved in the
grow in soil. of tree and vegetables.
activation of certain plant
Hydrophytes: grow in water. enzymes. Calcium deficiency
Epiphytes: which perch on results in stunting.
other plants but do not take necessary for growth. Magnesium is an important
nourishment from them. There are 17 essential plant
part of chlorophyll, a critical
Xerophytes: Are adapted to nutrients. Carbon and oxygen plant pigment important in
grow in a dry habitat like are absorbed from the air, while photosynthesis.
deserts and can survive other nutrients including water
without moisture. Micro nutrients
are obtained from the soil. Iron is necessary for
eg: cacti
Macro Nutrients photosynthesis and is present
Mesophytes: thrive under
condition intermediate bet Carbon: Carbon forms the as an enzyme cofactor in
ween very wet and very dry. backbone of many plants plants. Iron deficiency can
The great variety of crops biomolecules, including result in interveinal chlorosis
such as beans, tomatoes, pear, starches and cellulose. Carbon and necrosis.
etc. belong to this category. is fixed through photo- Molybdenum is a cofactor to
Parasitic: which depend on synthesis from the carbon enzymes important in building
other plants for their dioxide in the air and is a part amino acids.
nourishment. They lack of the carbohydrates that store
Copper is important for
chlorophyll and thus cannot energy in the plant.
photosynthesis.
make their own food. Hydrogen: Hydrogen also is
eg: bacteria, fungi. necessary for building sugars Manganese is necessary for
Carnivorous plants: plants and building the plant. It is building the chloroplasts.
which trap insects and other obtained almost entirely from Zinc is required in a large
small creatures on their sticky water. number of enzymes and plays
leaves. Oxygen: Oxygen is necessary an essential role in DNA
Plant Nutrition for cellular respiration. Cellular transcription.
Plant nutrition is the study of respiration is the process of In higher plants, Nickel is
the chemical elements that are generating energy-rich adeno- essential for activation of
urease, an enzyme involved from the base of the stem forming in response to a touch or
with nitrogen metabolism that the fibrous root system. shock stimulus.
is required to process urea. Stem: Stem and leaves constitute Living medium of plants
Chlorine is necessary for the shoot system.
Habitat: The normal locality
osmosis and ionic balance; it Plant Movements inhabited by a plant or animal,
also plays a role in photo-
Two types of movements are particularly in relation to the
synthesis.
noted in plants. effect of its environmental
Tissues 1.Growth movements factors.
1. Parenchyma : thin - walled, (irreversible) (2) Turgor World habitat day - Ist
polyhedral cells with living movements (reversible). Monday of October.
protoplasm, metabolically most Plants exhibits movements in The vegetation of deserts is
active. response to external stimulus called xerophytes. eg: Opuntia.
2. Collenchyma : Cell wall is made like touchings, light, A hydrophyte is an aquatic
up of thin and thick portions gravitation, water etc. plant.
with thickening in the corners. Chemical stimulus induced Plants which grow in saline
Found below the epidermis growth is called chemotro- water are called Halophytes.
(stem skin). pism. Plants growing well in full
3. Sclerenchyma: highly Bending of stem towards light sunlight are called Helio-
thickened cell walls. So it is the is due to phototropism. phytes.
primary strengthening tissue Plants which grow luxuriantly
Phototropism means move-
found in mature plants. No in rainy season and shed all
ments of P plan ts towards
living protoplasm, some of leaves in summer are called
light.
these are highly elongated Tropophytes.
The movement of plant or-
called fibres. Oxylophytes : plants growing
gans in response to the force
on acidic soil.
Complex Tissues of gravity is called as geotro-
Lithophytes: plants growing
Xylem - primarily a conducting pism.
on rocks.
tissue meant for transport of The movement of an organ
Plants growing in marsh are
water and mineral elements. induced by contact with a for-
called Helophytes.
Highly thickened walls. eign body is called
Hydroponics: is a method of
Phloem - meant for the haptotropism.
cultivating plants without
transport of food material from Water stimulus induced using soil but by using nutrient
the leaves where it is growth movements are called solution.
synthesized to the storage or hydrotropism.
consumption organs. The curvature movements Growth Regulators of
Epidermis - outermost layer of of plant parts in response to Plants
the plant body and is primarily the stimulus of contact are
Certain chemical substances
protective in nature. termed as thigmotropism.
regulate the growth and dif-
Secretory Tissues : Examples Growth movements in re- ferentiation of plants. These
of secretions are resin, sponse to the stimulus of heat substances are called plant
mucilage, essential oils, gums, or cold is called thermotro- growth regulators or phyto
pism. hormones.
nectar, etc.
Alternation of day and night The auxins induce cell elon-
Morphology of the Plant causes movements of plants gation and root initiation.
Root: Root develops from the called nyctinastic movements. Indol - 3 Acetic Acid (IAA) is
‘radicle; forming tap root system or Seismonastic movements are an important Auxin.
Stem elongation and dor- of light, only blue, red and Pollination between two flow-
mancy breaking are induced some violet light are absorbed. ers of one plant gytanogamy
by gibberillins. During day time plants take Pollination by insects is called
Dormancy is the period in in carbondioxide and give out Entomophily.
which seeds remains inactive. oxygen. Pollination by birds is called
The hormone which helps in GUTTATION: In some plants, Ornithophily.
flowering of plants - florigen. water oozes through certain
Pollination by animals is called
Cytokinins help to induce cell pores in the form of liquid, that
Zoophily.
division and cell elongation. pores remain permanently open
(Cytokinins are largely and this phenomenon is called Pollination by wind is called
Anemophily.
present in coconut water.) guttation.
The plant hormone that con- OSMOSIS :The process by The pollen grains in the
trols fruit ripening is ethylene. which water diffuses through plants are produced in anther.
Unripe fruits can be made to a semi-permeable membrane The chief pollinators of our
ripe before proper time if they from a region of higher concen- agrihorticulture crops are
are kept in ethylene atmo- tration of a solution to a region bees.
sphere. of lower concentration of a so- Wind borne pollen grains
Abscisic acid cures ageing lution. cause pollen allergy.
TRANSPIRATION: The In plants like castor and
and abscission of leaves.
leaves excretes water through moringa seed dispersal takes
It inhibits germination of
stomata by transpiration pro- place through wind.
seeds.
In Vallisnaria pollination
Seed dormancy is due to ab- cess.
occurs by water.
scisic acid. The required ingredient for
Seed dispersal in coconut
photosynthesis in plant is All
occurs through water.
Plant Processes the above
For the process of respiration The Kingdom of
PHOTOSYNTHESIS is the in plants oxygen is necessary
process by which green Xylem is responsible for the
Animals
plants manufacture food in conduction of water in plants
the form of carbohydrates by The animal with the longest
Plants get water through the life span on the land is el-
using water, CO2 and sunlight. roots because of capillarity
During Photosynthesis plants ephant, while the animal hav-
Phloem carries prepared food
use carbon dioxide and give ing the longest life span, in
from leaves to all parts of
out oxygen. plant. general, is turtles and tor-
Oxygen balance in the atmo- toises.
sphere is maintained through Seed Dispersal and Blue Whale is the biggest and
the process of Photosynthe- Pollination the heaviest mammal.
sis. The smallest ape is Gibbon.
The percentage of light en- Pollination means transfer of
pollen grains from the anther Chimpanzee is the most intel-
ergy fixed in photosynthesis
to the stigma of the same plant ligent ape.
is generally around 1%
or a different plant. Elephant tusks are enlarged
Photosynthesis takes place
faster in red light Pollination by water - incisors.
Plant pigments do not absorb Hydrophily Fishes respire through gills.
all the wavelengths of visible Pollination by Bat - The vertebrate which has a two
light. Out of the seven colours Chiropterophily chambered heart is fish.
Coprophytes are the animals
which derives their food from Largest ape ............................................................. Gorilla
faecal matters. Tallest animal .......................................................... Giraffe
The organism which has the Largest reptile .................................................... Crocodile
maximum number of ribs is the Lowest recorded temperature for a human
snake. The largest snake is being to survive ..................................................... 20.30 C
the anaconda found in the Fastest Animal ......................... Cheetah (speed 60-63 km/hr)
Amazon region in South Smallest bird ................................................ Humming bird
America. Largest bird ...................................... North African Ostrich
Longest poisonous snake ................................ King Cobra
Kangaroo is a nocturnal her-
Largest mammal (animal) ............. Blue Whale (wt. 209 tones)
bivore.
Largest land animal ................. African Elephant (wt. 7 tones)
Zebras are jockingly called
Largest teeth ........................ Elephant tusks (upper incisors)
''the ponies in pygamas.''
The main chemical content of
egg shell is calcium carbo- is called metamorphosis
nate. feeding on blood. Frugivores Cobra venom affects the ner-
Hibernation is the period of vous system and viper venom
are the animals feeding on
long sleep for animals in cold the blood circulatory system.
fruits.
weather when there is no food A baby cockroach is called
The Kangaroo rat never drinks
available. During this period nymph.
water in its entire life.-
animals go underground and
Ostrich, Rhea, Kiwi and Pen- Organism is called the ‘slip-
their metabolic activity be-
guin-all are flightless birds. per animal cule’ paramecium
comes very low and hence
they do not need to eat or Dodo (a flightless pigeon) The organism which performs
drink during this period. which appeared in Mauritius
The animal found in the is now extinct.
The animal classes that are
advertisement board of forest The smallest flightless bird is
vertebrates include
department with the heading kiwi, while the smallest flying
Jawless fish
“I have no medicinal value” is bird is the Bee humming bird Armored fish
black ape. of Cuba. Cartilaginous fish
Sanguivores are the animals Growth of tadpole into a frog Bony fish
Amphibians
Reptiles
Birds
The Classification of animals Mammals
Animal Kingdom can be split up into main groups, vertebrates Invertebrates include
(with a backbone) and invertebrates (without a backbone). around Sponges
800,000 species have been identified in the Animal Kingdom — Jellyfish, hydras,
most of them in the Arthropod phylum. sea anemones, corals
Scientists classify each organism according to its: Kingdom, Comb jellies
Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species. Flatworms
Molluscs
The science of classifying organisms is called taxonomy. Arthropods
Biologists classify living things into two kingdoms, the Plant Segmented worms
Kingdom and the Animal Kingdom. Echinoderms
the sex transformation in Physiology and Health sources are - butter, ghee, oils,
crabs - Sacculina. ground nuts, almonds, etc.
The population of reptiles is I. Carbohydrates One gram of fat yields 9.3
maximum on earth. Organic compounds contai- calories of energy.
Saurology is the study of ning carbon, hydrogen and IV. Vitamins
lizards. oxygen which constitute Vitamin A, D, E, K are fat
Ants go in a line by the sugars (Starch, cellulose, soluble whereas vitamin B
secretion of trail pheromones. glucose etc) and supply complex and C are water
calories for body activity.
The tallest living bird is soluble.
The general formula of
Ostrich. Rich sources of vitamin A are
carbohydrate molecule is
Silver fish is not a fish but a leafy vegetables, animal fat,
Cn (H2O)n.
wingless insect. The sources of carbohydrates carrot, spinach, milk etc.
are rice, wheat, honey, sugar, Severe deficiency of Vitamin A
Six Basic Animal potato, carrot. Deficiency of results in Xerophthalmia and
carbohydrates causes weight Nightblindness.
Groups loss and weakness. Rich sources of vitamin B are
Amphibians (Class Amphibia) Polyhydroxy aldehyde or cereals, eggs, fruits, liver,
are one of the six basic groups ketones are carbohydrates. pulses.
Based on the number of sugar Vitamin C is found in oranges,
of animals.
units they can be classified lemon, vegetables and milk.
Amphibians include frogs, Milk, egg, liver etc are rich
into, Monosaccharides, Oligo-
toads, caecilians, newts and saccharides and Polysaccha- sources of vitamin E.
salamanders. rides. Vitamin E is considered both
Birds (Class Aves). Birds, best as a vitamin and hormone.
II. Proteins
known for their ability to fly, The source of vitamin K is
are unmatched in their com- Proteins are highly complex
green leafy vegetables and
nitrogenous compound found
mand of the skies. fishes, pea etc.
in all living organisms. Proteins
Invertebrates are one of the six Vitamin K is essential for blood
are hydrolysed in the body to
basic groups of animals. Katy- coagulation.
produce amino acids and are
dids, spiders, sea squirts, oc- If milk is exposed to sunlight
essential for growth and repair
topuses, earthworms, starfish, for a long time, vitamin B2 will
of the body tissues. They also
beetles, hydras, dragonflies, be lost.
provide energy when calories
sponges, corals, snails, and Excessive intake of polished
are deficient.
jellyfish are a handful of the rice causes deficiency of B1
Sources: Milk, fish, meat, eggs,
invertebrates alive today. (Thiamine).
nuts, dal.
Cow milk is a rich source of
Fish are cold-blooded, aquatic Soyabean seeds possess
vitamin A.
animals that have scales, gills highest percentage of proteins
Vitamin D, can also be
and fins. (30-35%).
synthesised in our body with
Mammals (Class Mammalia) Prolonged protein deficiency
the help of sun light.
are one of the six basic groups cause severe under
Shark liver oil and cod liver oil
of animals. nourishment - a serious
are rich sources of vitamin D.
condition Kwashiorker is
Reptiles (Class Reptilia) are Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamine)
resulted mostly in children.
cold-blooded vertebrates that is a cobalt containing vitamin.
diverged from ancestral am- III. Fats Even though the amounts of
phibians about 340 million Fats are insolube in water but vitamins required are small
years ago. soluble in fat solvents. Major compared to other nutrients, it
Source and Role of Principal Vitamins
Vi ta mi n Best Food Source Functio n Deficiency disease
Retinal : Carrots, yellow and green veg- Synthesis of the visual purple of Xerophthalmia: drying of
(Vitamin A) (Fat soluble) etables. Other sources include the retinal rods. cornea and ulceration. Night
butter, milk, fish-liver oil. Maintains general health anc blindness: Inability to see in
vigour of epithelial cells. Hence the dark. Keratinization of
essential for good skin and hair. epithelium: Dry skin and hair.
Thiamine Whole grains, yeast, liver, egg, Carbohydrate metabolism. En- Beri-beri: Partial paralysis of
(Vitamin B) (Water soluble) pork, nuts. sures normal functioning of the skeletal muscles and digestive
central nervous system. disturbances.
Ribofla win Cereals, legumes, milk, egg, Essential carbohydrate and pro- Characterised by corneal ulcer-
(Vitamin B) (Water soluble) liver, kidney, yeast. tein metabolism especially in the ation and cracking of skin (es-
cells of the eye, skin, intestines, pecially around the lips).
and blood.
Niac in Lean meat, liver, milk, eggs, Inhibits production of choles- Pellagra: Characterised by
(Water soluble) nuts, whole grains. terol and helps in the breakdown dermatitis (skin inflammation),
of fats, proteins and carbohy- diarrhoea and dementia (loss of
drates. intellectual function).
Pyrido xine Salmon, yeast, yogurt, corn, Essential for amino-acid metabo- Epileptiform seizures observed
(Vitamin B 6) (Water soluble) spinach, cheese, cereals & le- lism. Assists production of anti- in children. Symptoms include
gumes. Also synthesised by in- bodies. dermatitis of eyes, nose and
testinal bacteria. mouth; retarded growth.
Folic Acid (Water soluble) Yeast, liver, green leafy veg- Helps normal production of Macrocytic anaemia: Produc-
etables. Synthesized by intesti- blood cells. Identified in chro- tion of abnormally large red
nal bacterial also. mosomes an important repro- blood cells.
ductive factor.
Cyano c o b alamine Liver, kidney, meat, eggs, milk Necessary for red blood cells for- 1. Pernicious anaemia.
(Vitamin B 12 ) (Water soluble) and cheese. (Note: mation and normal functioning 2. Neuro-psychiatric abnor-
Absent in vegetables, only vi- of nervous system. malities: Memory loss, mood
tamin containing cobalt.) and personality changes.
Ascorbic acid Citrus fruits, tomatoes, cabbage. Influences permeability of cap- Scurvy: Swollen gums, teeth
(Vitamin C) (Water soluble) illary walls. Develops immunity loss, bleeding gums.
against diseases. Forms collagen.
Fish liver oils, egg yolk, milk, Controls calcium and phospho-
Calc ife r o l butter. Also synthesized in the rus metabolism which contribute Rickets (in infants) Bones be-
(Vitamin D) (Fat soluble) human body by the skin under to formation of teeth and bones. come soft (deformed).
the influence of sunlight. Oesteomalacia (demineral-
ization of bones)
Tocopherol Wheat germ, fresh nuts, seed As anti-oxidant which protects Deficiency not reported in hu-
(Vitamin E) (Fat soluble) oils, green leafy vegetables. lipids of cells membranes against mans Causes sterility in rats.
oxygen damage.
Phyl lo quin o ne s Liver, spinach, cauliflower, Assists in the production of pro- Haemorrhage: Subcutaneous
(Vitamin K) (Fat soluble) green tomatoes. thrombin and other factors that and intramuscular bleedings due
ensure normal clotting of blood. to delayed clotting time.
Food Source Heterotrophic : Organism is
Vitamin A (Retinol) Cod liver oil, carrots unable to prepare its own food.
Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Rice bran Holozoic : Mode of nutrition
Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) Citrus, most fresh foods characteristic of animals
Vitamin D (Calciferol) Cod liver oil whereby simple substances
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) Meat, eggs are obtained from complex food
Vitamin E (Tocopherol) Wheat germ oil, unrefined veg.oils substances.
Vitamin B12 (Cobalamins) Liver, eggs, animal products Saprophytic : Absorbs
Vitamin K (Phylloquinone/ nourishment from dead or
phytol naphthoquinone) Leafy green vegetables decaying organic matter.
Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid) Meats, whole grains, in many foods Parasitic : Derives nutrition
Vitamin B7 (Biotin) Meats, dairy products, eggs from living host without
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) Meat, dairy products. helping it in any way.
Vitamin B3 (Niacin) Meat, eggs, grains
Homodont dendition :
Vitamin B9 (Folic acid) Leafy green vegetables
Consists of only one type of
teeth. They are used only for
is very necessary. Otherwise Overdose of water soluble catching prey, as homodont
several deficiency diseases are vitamin does not cause any does not chew their food. Eg :
caused in the body. harm but accumulation of fat Snakes.
The name ‘vitamin’ is coined soluble vitamin can be toxic. It Heterodont dendition : More
by J.Funk (1912) can lead to hypervitaminosis. than one type of teeth,
Milk is a rich source of all Vitamin A accumulate in liver differing in function, shape
vitamins except vitaminC. while vitamin D promotes high and function. Eg : Human
Vitamin D(in skin) and vitamin Ca+ absorption which damage
K (in liver) can be synthesized the kidney where it is
Human Body
by our body. deposited.
Deficiency of protein , Digestive System
Vitamin A Deficiency causes
carbohydrates and fats results Night Blindness and The process of converting
in protein - energy - Keratomalacia. food into energy giving sub-
malnutrition. stances is carried out by the
Protein deficiency causes Deficiency of Vitamin B 1
(Thiamine) causes Beri Beri. digestive system.
Kwashiorkor- skin cracks and
Vitamin B3 (Niacin) deficiency The digestive system consists
become scaly, abdomen swells,
hair become reddish . causes Pellagra. of the alimentary canal (buccal
Vitamin B6 Deficiency- Anemia. cavity, oesophagus, stomach,
Marasmus child show all
small intestine, large intestine
above symptoms besides Vitamin B5 deficiency -
Paresthesia ending in the rectum and anus)
wasting of muscles.
and the associated glands.
Diseases restricted to given Vitamin C deficiency - Scurvy
Alimentary canal is a long tube
region and arising from its Vitamin D deficiency - Rickets
specific environment condition which is 6-9 metres long and
are called endemic diseases. Eg
Modes of Nutrition starts from mouth and ends at
: Goiter in sub - Himalayan Autotrophic : Ability of anus.
region. organism to prepare its own The parts of the alimentary
Pellagra is common amongst food. canal are Mouth , Pharynx,
people living on a maize diet, Holophytic : Characteristic of Oesophagus, Stomach, Small
because maize interferes with plants where by they prepare intestine, Large intestine.
the absorption of niacin in complex food substances The mouth leads into a funnel
body. using simple raw materials. shaped pharynx, which is the
common passage for food and and secrete bile later when The exchange of O2 and CO2
air. food is present in intestine. takes place in lungs at alveoli.
Pharynx lead into oesophagus The large intestine secretes no The amount of air moving in
which is about 25cm long. enzyme and play only a minor and out of lungs during each
The three divisions of large role in the absorption of breath is called tidal volume.
intestine are Caecum, Colon nutrients. The maximum volume of air
and Rectum. that can be moved in or out of
Lungs the lungs is referred to as the
Small intestine. It is the largest
and narrow tubular part of vital capacity of the lungs.
alimentary canal. It measures Eupnea –– Normal breathing
about 6 meters in length. Dyspnea –painful breathing
Anexia – No O2 in inspired air
Small intestine, the highly
Pneumonia, pleurosis, bron-
coiled portion has 3 divisions
chitis, silicosis and emphy-
such as duodenum, jejunum
sema are diseases affecting
and ileum.
respiratory tract.
Digestion is of two types
SARS (Severe Acute Respi-
Intra cellular digestion : The ratory Syndrome) a lung dis-
digested products pass to the ease, is caused by Corona Vi-
cytoplasm across the rus.
endocytotic inside membrane.
Eg : Amoeba High altitude problems
Extra Cellular Digestion : Cell 1. Asphyxia - Oxygen starvation
The lung is the essential
synthesizes one or more due to low atmospheric oxygen
respiration organ in all air-
enzymes for digesting specific is called asphyxia.
breathing animals.
type of nutrient. 2. Hypoxia - refers to a general
Lungs are the respiratory
The liver is the largest gland organ in higher vertebrates low level of oxygen
of the body. It secretes bile, (man). availability. Physiologically it
containing bile pigments and The main function of the lungs refers to a deficiency of oxygen
bile organic salt. If intestine is the oxygenation of blood at the tissue level.
contains no food, the bile flows and to supply oxygen to it. Tobacco smoke and exhaust
to gall bladder, instead of The right lung is larger than the fumes result in carbon
duodenum ; which contract left lung. monoxide poisoning.
Right weight about - 620 g The binding capacity of
Left weight about - 570 g carbon monoxide is 200 times
Alveoli are small air sacs of than that of carbondioxide with
the lungs through the walls of haemoglobin.
Liver which gaseous exchange A leaf like cartilagenous flap,
Stomach
takes place between blood the epiglottis guards the
Gall
Bladder and air. opening of glottis.
The organ without muscle is Sleeping in a closed room with
Large lungs a burning kerosene lamp may
Intestine
Small Pleura protects lungs from lead to death due to lack of O2.
Intestine harm. In mammals, the body cavity
The CO content in the air that is partitioned into thoracic and
2
we exhale is about 8%. abdominal parts by diaphragm.
Heart s
World’s fir
st heart transplant wa
by Ch ristian
d December 1967
performed on 3r
Bernard. Science
of A ll In di a In sti tute of Medical
Dr. Venugopa l t 1994.
s fir st he ar t tra nsplant on 3rd Augus
performed Indi a’ a
the history of Keral
Th e fir st he ar t transplantation in sp ita l
ust Ho
Cochin Medical Tr
was conducted at ce of D r. Jose
un de r th e guid en
.
Chacko Periyapuram
The cardiovascular system The deoxygenated blood (im- Arteries carry pure blood from
comprises the heart, veins, pure blood) from the body the heart to the tissues.
arteries and capillaries. coined by two large veins Pulmonary artery is the only
Heart is the pumping organ of called Superier Venacava and artery carrying impure blood.
blood vascular system. Inferior Venacava is in the Veins collect impure blood
Heart length - 12 cm right auricle. from the tissues and carry it
Heart width - 9 cm The oxygenated blood from to the heart.
The normal heart beat is 70- the lungs is received by the Pulmonary vein is the only
72 per minute in males and heart in left auricle. vein carrying pure blood.
78-82 per minute in females. Aorta is the largest artery The largest vein in human
The heart beat of a child is which carries oxygenated body is called inferior
more than that of an adult. ie blood. venacava.
140/min The largest blood vessel in the The lengt h of our bl ood
The circulation of blood in the body is Aorta. capillaries is about 1,00,000
body is regulated by the heart. As blood passes through cm.
The human heart is on the left lungs, gases are exchanged Jarvik Heart is the artifical
side beneath the left nipple. through blood vessels called pump to replace the human
The pericardium protects capillaries of alveoli. Heart heart developed by Robert K.
heart from harm. beat rate in embryo (Foetus) 1 Jarvik.
The average weight of the minute = 200. Heart beat rate John H. Gibbon (USA) built
heart is about 340 gm in men in new born baby 1 minute = the first successful heart-lung
and 225 gm in women. 140 times. machine.
The human heart has four Normal pulse rate of healthy A pacemaker is used to stimu-
chambers, a pair of auricles adult human is 72 per minute. late the heart muscles.
and a pair of ventricles. Normal BP is 120/80 mmHg. Except heart all other organs
The human heart consists of The science dealing with the of our body are found in pairs.
four chambers and in fish the study of the heart and its dis- The organ which is not af-
heart consists of two cham- eases is known as cardiology. fected by tumour is heart.
bers. In those of amphibians ECG (Electro Cardio Gram) Pain in heart musles -- Angina
there are 3 chambers. Heart of It is the photographic record pectoris.
reptiles is incompletely di- of electric variations that oc- The circulation of blood in the
vided into 4 chambers (Croco- cur during contraction of body is regulated by the heart.
dile has 4 chambered heart). muscles of heart. The credit of discovering the
Mammals and birds also have ECG was invented by Wilhelm circulatory system goes to
four chambered hearts. Einthoven. William Harvey.
The total length of our blood Constituents of the Albumin, globulin and fi-
vessels is about one lakh human body brinogen are the plasma pro-
kilometre. In a normal man weighing 60 kg teins.
Heart disease Constituent Weight Percent Fibrinogen is concerned with
of atoms Coagulation of blood.
Coronary heart disease refers The blood cells are of three
Oxygen 38.8 kg 25.5 %
to the failure of the coronary types - Red blood cells (Eryth-
Carbon 10.9 kg 9.5 %
circulation to supply adequate rocytes), White blood cells
Hydrogen 6.0 kg 63 %
circulation to cardiac muscle
Nitrogen 1.9 kg 1.4 % (leucocytes) and the Platelets
and surrounding tissue.
Calcium 1.2 kg 0.3 % (Thrombocytes).
Coronary artery disease is a
Phosphorus 0.6 kg .2 % Red Blood Corpuscles (RBC )
disease of the artery caused by
Potassium 0.2 kg 0.06 % contain haemoglobin which
the accumulation of
gives blood its red colour.
atheromatous plaques within
Camel is the only mammal hav-
the walls of the arteries that
ing nucleus in the RBC.
supply the myocardium. blood pressure, especially The abnormal rise in total
Angina pectoris (chest pain) localised high blood pressure. count of RBC is called poly-
and myocardial infarction Inflammatory heart disease cythemia.
(heart attack) are symptoms of involves inflammation of the Erythrocytes participate in
and conditions caused by heart muscle and/or the tissue transporting oxygen from
coronary heart disease. surrounding it. lungs to tissues.
Cardiomyopathy is the Valvular heart disease is CO2 is carried in both plasma
deterioration of the function of disease process that affects and RBC as bicarbonates.
the myocardium (i.e., the actual one or more valves of the heart.
heart muscle) for any reason. RBCs are produced in the bone
People with cardiomyopathy marrow.
Blood Spleen & liver destroy the
are often at risk of arrhythmia
The blood serves to transport dead RBCs in human body.
and/or sudden cardiac death.
Cardiovascular disease is any and distribute materials within Spleen is known as graveyard
of a number of specific the body. of RBC.
diseases that affect the heart Distribution of enzymes is not Spleen serves as a Blood
itself and/or the blood vessel a function of blood. Bank (Reservoir of blood) in
system, especially the veins Blood circulation was discov- the body.
and arteries leading to and ered by William Harvey. The life span of RBC is about
from the heart. Since blood is found outside 120 days.
Heart failure also called the cells it is called as extra
Haemoglobin consists of iron
congestive heart failure (or cellular fluid (ECF).
containing pigment haem and
CHF), and congestive cardiac The pH value of human blood
a protein globin.
failure (CCF), is a condition that is nearly 7.5.
Haemoglobin, the respiratory
can result from any structural The blood cholesterol level in
pigment gives red colour to
or functional cardiac disorder 100ml of blood in a normal
RBC.
that impairs the ability of the person varies between 150-
heart to fill with or pump a 250 mg Haemoglobin helps in trans-
sufficient amount of blood The liquid part of the blood portation of oxygen.
throughout the body. viz. the plasma constitutes Normal adult human male has
Hypertensive heart disease is 55% of the total blood vol- 14 grams of haemoglobin in
heart disease caused by high ume. 100 millilitre of blood.
Functions of Blood
Blood pressure • Supply of oxygen to tissues (bound to hemoglobin, which is
Blood pressure (BP) is the pres- carried in red cells)
sure exerted by circulating • Supply of nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, and fatty
blood upon the walls of blood acids (dissolved in the blood or bound to plasma proteins
vessels, and is one of the prin- (e.g., blood lipids))
cipal vital signs. During each • Removal of waste such as carbon dioxide, urea, and lactic acid
heartbeat, BP varies between a
maximum (systolic) and a mini-
• Immunological functions, including circulation of white blood
mum (diastolic) pressure. cells, and detection of foreign material by antibodies
• Coagulation, which is one part of the body's self-repair mecha-
nism (the act of blood clotting when one gets cut to stop the
The condition when haemo- bleeding)
globin content of the blood • Messenger functions, including the transport of hormones
falls below normal is termed
and the signaling of tissue damage
anaemia.
• Regulation of body pH
The disease resistant con-
stituent of blood is W.B.C. • Regulation of core body temperature
which produces antibodies. • Hydraulic functions
Antigens are capable of
stimulating the formation of Clotting of blood in blood ves- High blood pressure (Hyper-
antibodies. sels is called thrombosis. tension) is known as the si-
WBC-White Blood Cor- The coagulation of blood in lent killer.
puscles (Leucocytes) defend vessels is prevented during Normal blood sugar level : 80-
our body from disease caus- normal condition by heparin. 100mg/100ml of blood
ing microorganisms. Haemophilia is a hereditary Normal cholesterol 50-180 mg
The number of luekocytes per bleeding disease due to inad-
/100ml of plasma.
micro litre of blood is called equate clotting of the blood.
the total count of WBC. It is Haemophilia sometimes re- The largest leucocyte -
normally 5000 in humans. ferred to as bleeder’s disease Monocytes.
Leukaemia, also called blood or 'christmas disease.' The smallest leucocyte -
cancer, is caused by the over A healthy person has 5-6 litres lymphocytes.
production of WBCs. of blood in his body. The leucocytes capable of
Leucopenia is the disease At a time of blood donation producing antibodies are -
caused due to decrease in the only 300 ml of blood is used. lymphocytes.
white blood cells count. The normal blood pressure of The leucocytes which are
The proportion of R.B.C. a healthy adult is 120/80 mm modified as scavenger cells are
and W.B.C. in human body Hg.
- Monocytes.
120 mm Hg is known as sys-
is 600 : 1. The leucocytes that are able to
tolic pressure and 80 mm Hg
The life span of WBC is about is known as diastolic pres- produce the anticoagulant
5 to 21 days. sure. heparin are Basophils.
Platelets or thrombocytes are
other blood cells. They per- Presence of blood in urine - Haematuria.
form an important role in blood Presence of haemoglobin in the urine - Haemoglobinuria.
clotting. They live only for a Presence of excess urea in the blood - Uremia
few hours. Presence of excess proteins in urine - Proteinuria.
Plasma Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man displays the proportions of a man.
About 55% of whole blood is The Vitruvian Man is a world-renowned
blood plasma, a fluid that is drawing created by Leonardo da Vinci
the blood's liquid medium, in the year 1487.
which by itself is straw-yellow The drawing and text are some-
times called the Canon of
in color.
Proportions .
Plasma functions in transport, It is stored in the Gallerie
body immunity, prevention of dell'Accademia in Venice, Italy.
blood loss, retention of fluid The drawing is based on the
in blood, maintenance of pH, correlations of ideal human
uniform distribution of heat. proportions with geometry
Hematological disorders described by the ancient Roman
Anemia: Insufficient red cell architect Vitruvius
mass (anemia) can be the re-
sult of bleeding, blood disor- Bacterial infection of the shrink and form a hard clot to
ders like thalassemia, or nutri- blood is bacteremia or sepsis. plug the opening of the blood
tional deficiencies. Viral Infection is viremia. Ma- vessel to stop bleeding. After
Abnormal increase in WBC laria and trypanosomiasis are clotting occurs, a straw
count is known as leukemia or blood-borne parasitic infec- coloured fluid called ‘serum’ is
blood cancer. tions. left. This portion of blood
Leukemia is a group of can- Blood clotting retains its liquid form
cers of the blood-forming tis- indefinitely.
Blood platelets breakdown in
sues. the vicinity of an injury and Haemophilia is a hereditary
Abnormal decrease in total release an enzyme that causes bleeding disease due to
count of WBC is known as formation of fibrin from inadequate clotting of the
leucopenia fibrinogen. Fibrin forms a blood.
Non-cancerous overproduc- tangled mass of fibres which
tion of red cells (polycythemia
vera) or platelets (essential Recipient Donor
thrombocytosis) may be pre-
malignant.
Hemophilia is a genetic illness
that causes dysfunction in
one of the blood's clotting
mechanisms.
Blood is an important vector
of infection. HIV, the virus,
which causes AIDS, is trans-
mitted through contact with
blood, semen or other body
secretions of an infected per-
son.
Hepatitis B and C are trans-
mitted primarily through blood
contact.
Blood Groups Erythroblastosis foetalis –– body which carries pure blood
caused by the Rh blood is pulmonary vein
A person having blood type group. Antigen is a substance which
B could safely donate blood Land Steiner and Weiner first stimulates formation of anti-
to persons with blood type B found the Rh factor in Rhesus body
and AB monkey. When the right ventricle in the
Blood groups A, B, AB and O Normal count level RBC in human heart contracts, the
were discovered by Karl Blood - 5 million/ccg Blood. blood moves to pulmonary
Landsteiner. Normal count level WBC in artery
O blood group can be given Blood - 5,000 to 9,000 ccg
to persons of any other group. Blood. Liver : The largest gland
Therefore O group is called Normal count level platelets in The liver is the largest gland
universal donor. Blood - 2,50,000 to 3 lakhs. in the body.
A person with group AB can Life span of RBC - 120 days
receive any other group. So Life span of WBC - 5 to 21
AB is called universal days
recepient. Life span of platelets - 7 days
‘A’ blood group is most com- The instrument used to mea- Liver
mon among the Europeans, sure the blood pressure in
Gall Bladder
while ‘B’ and ‘O’ are common
Human body - Sphygmoma-
among the Asians and the
nometer
American Indians, respec-
The only one vein in human
tively.
Bile Duct
Largest blood cell in human body - Monocytes
Smallest blood cell in human body - Lympho cytes
Major organ systems
Cardiovascular system: pumping and channeling of lymph between tissues and the blood stream, the
blood to and from the body and lungs with heart, blood, lymph and the nodes and vessels that transport it.
and blood vessels. Musculoskeletal system: muscles provide movement
Digestive System: digestion and processing food with and a skeleton provides structural support and pro-
salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, liver, gallblad- tection with bones, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons.
der, pancreas, intestines, rectum, and anus. Nervous system: collecting, transferring and process-
Endocannabinoid system: neuromodulatory lipids and ing information with brain, spinal cord, peripheral
receptors involved in a variety of physiological pro- nerves, and nerves
cesses including appetite, pain-sensation, mood, mo- Reproductive system: the sex organs; in the female;
tor learning, synaptic plasticity, and memory. ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary
Endocrine system: communication within the body glands, and in the male; testes, vas deferens, seminal
using hormones made by endocrine glands such as vesicles, prostate, and penis.
the hypothalamus, pituitary or pituitary gland, pineal Respiratory system: the organs used for breathing,
body or pineal gland, thyroid, parathyroids, and the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, and dia-
adrenals or adrenal glands phragm.
Integumentary system: skin, hair and nails Urinary system: kidneys, ureters, bladder and ure-
Immune system: the system that fights off disease; thra involved in fluid balance, electrolyte balance and
composed of leukocytes, tonsils, adenoids, thymus, excretion of urine.
and spleen. Vestibular system: contributes to our balance and
Lymphatic system: structures involved in the transfer our sense of spatial orientation.
role in
Liver plays a major Bilirubin and biliverdin are pigments (bilirubin and
s a mber
nu
metabolism and ha bile pigments. biliverdin) and inactivated
body, in-
of functions in the The disease which affects the products of steroid hormones,
st or ag e,
cl udin g gl ycog en liver is jaundice. some vitamins and many drugs.
re d blood
decomposition of Bleeding in liver is known as 6) Destruction of dead cells and
n synthe-
cells, plasma protei liver cirrhosis. bacteria by phagocytosis.
tio n, and
sis, hormone produc Hepatatis is the viral disease 7) Synthesises heparin - an
lie below
s anticoagulant, prothrombin,
detoxification. It of liver which influence func-
e abdomi- fibrinogen and some factors
the diaphragm in th tioning of liver.
the abdo- necessary for blood
nal-pelvic region of Excessive alcoholic consump-
le, an al- coagulation.
men. It produces bi tion causes cirrhosis
ich aids
kaline compound wh Exessive stimulus for alcohol
e ulsifi-
em Kidneys and Dialysis
in digestion, via th consumption is called dypso-
cation of lipids. mania.
Manufacturing of urea takes
place in liver.
It is the largest metabolic or- Excessive use of tobacco affe-
gan in human body. cts the nerves while the same
The liver is on the right side of alcohol affects the liver.
of the stomach. Stone in gall bladder called
Liver is dark brown in colour. Cholecystostatis
Sleeping on left side is useful Urea is produced in the liver. The kidneys are the chief ex-
because it gives maximum re- Hepatitis is the viral disease of cretory organs of vertebrates.
laxation to the muscles of the liver which influence The main purpose of the kid-
right side and keeps the liver functioning of liver. ney is to separate urea, min-
warm and relaxed and im- The weight of liver in man is eral salts, toxins, and other
proves bile secretion. about 1.5 kg. waste products from the blood.
Glucose is stored in the liver The disease that result due to Urea is removed from the blood
and muscles in the form of any obstruction in the bile duct by kidneys.
glycogen. is Jaundice. The volume of urine produced
Liver is otherwise called Excessive alcoholic consum in an adult human being for
HEPAR. ption causes cirrhosis. every 24 hours is 6.5 litres.
Second largest gland in hu- The high tendency to drink The functional unit of kidneys
man body - Pancreas alcohol is termed as is called nephron.
Exocrine and endocrine gland dipsomania. Nephritis is the inflammation
- Pancreas Liver h as a great many of the kidney caused by the
Heterocrine gland -Pancreas important functions other than infection of streptococci.
A Normal man secrete about 1 helping in digestion. They are:
Litre of Pancreatic Juice per Presence of urea in the blood
1) Regulation of carbohydrate,
day. protein and lipid metabolism. is called uremia.
The main function of the liver 2) Synthesis of urea for excretion. Kidneys are responsible for
is to produce bile which is an 3) Removal of drugs and toxic the removal of excess water,
important agent in digestion materials. The liver has salts and waste products from
of fat. enzymes which can detoxify the blood in the form of urine.
There is no known digestive harmful materials. Increased flow of urine is
enzymes in the bile. 4) Storage of vitamins. called diuresis and substa-
Bile is stored in the gall blad- 5) Liver is the principal organ for nces that increase the flow of
der. the excretion of cholestrol, bile urine is called diuretics.
Anti Diuretic hormone (ADH) Inner pale region of each Cerebellum is known as
or Vasopressin regulates the kidney is known as medulla.
‘Little brain’ of the entire
amount of water excreted in Urinary bladder and ureters are
urine. brain portions.
lined by transitional epithelium
Deficiency of ADH results in and hence are capable of being
the disease diabetes insipidus considerably stretched, when Cerebral cortex is outer layer
characterised by a large filled with urine. of cerebrum. It is made of grey
amount of water being re- Normal urine is about 95% matter and contains many lay-
moved through urine. water and 5% dissolved solids. er of nerve cells.
Increased flow of urine is Presence of glucose in urine is Cerebral hemisphere is divid-
called diuresis and sub- referred to as glycosuria. ed into frontal, parietal, tempo-
stances that increase the flow The kidneys excrete a variety ral and occipital lobes.
of urine is called diuretics. of waste products produced by
Dialysis is used in the case of The surface of cerebral hemi-
metabolism. These include the
a patient suffering from kid- sphere shows many convolu-
nitrogenous wastes urea, from
ney trouble tions called Gyri separated by
protein catabolism, and uric
A dialysis unit is an artificial depressions called Sulci.
acid, from nucleic acid
kidney which performs the The Gyri increases the surface
metabolism.
functions of a normal kidney area of cortex to accommodate
The kidneys secrete a variety
outside the body. more nerve cells.
of hormones, including
Dysuria is called painful Uri- erythropoietin, calcitriol, and The general sensory or
nation. renin. somaesthetic area in parietal
The right kidney sits just be- At least one kidney must lobe perceive general
low the diaphragm and poste- function properly for life to be sensation, viz pain. touch and
rior to the liver, the left below maintained. temperature.
the diaphragm and posterior Nephropathy refers to damage The motor area in frontal lobe
to the spleen. controls voluntary movement
to or disease of the kidney. An
Each adult kidney weighs be- of muscles.
older term for this is nephrosis.
tween 125 and 170 grams in The premotor area in frontal
Diabetes is the most common
males and between 115 and lobe is the highest centre of
cause of kidney failure,
155 grams in females. involuntary movements of
accounting for more than 40
The kidney has a bean- muscles.
shaped structure, each kidney percent of new cases. High
blood pressure, or The visual and auditory areas
has concave and convex sur-
hypertension, is a major factor are in occipital lobe and are
faces.
in the development of kidney centres for visual and hearing
Outer darker region of kidney
problems in people with sensation.
is named as cortex.
diabetes. Association area in the frontal
lobe is responsible for
Some of the most common Brain association between various
kidney diseases and The brain is protected by sensations and movements.
conditions are: polycystic cranial bone and meninges. Memory, intelligence, and
kidney disease, nephrosis,
The brain is marked into judgement depends on co-
lupus nephritis, diabetic forebrain, mid brain and hind ordinated and integrated
nephropathy, brain. activities of different cortical
rhabdomyolysis, kidney The forebrain consists of ce-
centres.
stones, and renal tubular rebrum, the largest part of hu- Hypothalamus : contain higher
acidosis. man brain. nerve centres for temperature
regulation, hunger, thirst and Brian stem consists of pons tion
Scientific classifica
emotional function. It secretes and medulla oblongata. It
neurohormones which control controls vegetative actions. of Human Being
..... Animalia
secretions of anterior pituitary Kingdom: ............
Spinal Cord .. Chordata
hormones. It synthesises the Phylum: ..................
Mammalia
posterior pituitary hormones. The spinal cord controls reflex Class: .....................
... Primates
The medulla oblongata actions in human beings. Order: .....................
Hominidae
controls the involuntary The length of the spinal cord Family: ..................
is about 1 metre (3.3ft) . Homininae
actions. Subfamily: ............
The spinal cord is a series of ..... Hominini
Tribe: ..................
The central control of
31 sections called segments. ........ Homo
respiratory activity in human Genus: ..................
body is exercised by medulla Each segment giving rise to a mo Sapiens
Species: ............ Ho
oblongata. pair of spinal nerves.
Medulla oblongata has the 10 pairs originate from the smelled, the substance must be
centres, for regulating the brain stem. It contain sensory, capable of entering to a gaseous
working of the heart mixed and motor nerves. state to reach nostrils and it
contraction of blood vessels We lose consciousness if must be water soluble to
and respiratory and digestive blood flow to the brain is cut dissolve in the mucus to make
movements. off for more than five seconds. contact with olfactory cells.
The thermoregulatory centre There are 12 pairs of cranial
of the human body is nerves and 31 pairs of spinal
Taste
hypothalamus. nerves in man. Taste buds are sense crayons
E.E.G (Electro Encephalogram) for taste sensation.
is used to record changes in SENSE ORGANS Taste buds are oval bodies
the electric potential in various The organs which receive the found as some elevation in
areas of brain. external and internal stimuli tongue called papillae.
Biological death of a patient and convey the same to the Human beings recognise four
means the death of tissues of central nervous system are basic modalities or tastes-
the brain. called sense organs. sweet, sour, salty and bitter.
Encephalitis is caused by They are principally perceived
virus.
Smell at the tip, along lateral edges,
Receptors for smell occur in on upper surface of front half
Disorder of brain affecting
and on the back of the tongue,
recognition of letters and nasal mucosa and are made up
respectively.
words is Dyslexia. of modified pseudo stratified
Sour taste is evoked by H+
The final weight of the brain in epithelium. This epithelium is
ions, produced by ionisation
an adult male is 1.4kg and 1.3 known as olfactory epithelium. of acids.
kg in case of a woman. Olfactory epithelium is more Sweet taste is evoked by
Cerebellum is second largest extensive in dogs with an acute organic substances viz. sugar,
portion of brain located at the olfactory sense. dextrin, glycerol, chloroform,
base, under the cerebrum. aspartame and saccharine.
This epithelium is composed of
Cerebellum contains centres three types of cells - olfactory Bitter taste is evoked by
for the maintenance of posture receptor cells, supporting cells quinine, morphine, caffeine,
and equilibrium of body and nicotine, urea and cation of
and basal cells.
for the muscle tone. It also many inorganic salts like
modulates and moderate Olfactory receptor cells Magnesium salts.
voluntary action initiated by function as chemo receptors. Salty taste is evoked from
the cerebral cortex. In order for a substance to be cations of Na+.
Aspartame & saccharine are In an adult man skin covers the The eyeball has a diameter of
widely used as artificial muscles of about 1.9m2 (20 2.5 cm.
sweetening agents. sq.ft) and a woman has about The eyeball has 3 coatings
Loss of smell reduces the 1.6m2 (17sq.ft). Outer most layer is an opaque,
perception of taste also. That The outer layer of the skin is white, fibro elastic capsule
is why people suffering from termed as epidermis, which has called sclera. This is continu-
cold (rhinitis) often complain no nerves or blood vessels and ous with a transparent layer
that they cannot taste their is continuously renewed. called Cornea (bulging white
food. Inner layer, called dermis, is a part of the eye)
Taste of chillies, black pepper thick layer below the epidermis The membrane that covers
and hot sauces are not true which contain nerves, blood cornea is conjunctiva.
sensation. It is mainly a vessels, hair follicles, In case of eye transfer only
sensation of pain receptors. sebaceous gland and sweat cornea is used.
Many insects such as honey glands.
Middle layer is called choroid,
bee, flies, butterflies and moth Colour of the skin is due to the
is a highly vascular, pigmented
posses chemoreceptors for presence of the pigment,
layer.
taste sensation at their feet. melanin, in epidermis.
The main function of human Ciliary body is the thickest
Some mammals like rhesus portion of vascular tissue,
monkey, dogs, pig and cat skin is excretion.
Sweat serves to regulate the arising from a point just behind
possess taste sensation for the junction of sclera and
water. body temperature.
cornea. It consists of ciliary
Man doesn’t possess taste Sweat glands seen in dermis
layer help to eliminate excess process and ciliary muscles.
buds for tasting water.
heat from the body. A pigmented, muscular,
Skin - Touch opaque diaphragm called, Iris,
Dermatology is the branch of
Skin : Touch corpuscle in the science that deals with the extend from ciliary body in
skin responds to physical study of skin and its diseases. front of lens. It can be seen as
sensations of pressure, heat, a black screen through the
cold, contact and pain. EYE - Vision cornea and has a small central
Skin is our tactile (sense of The eye (photoreceptor) is a aperture called ‘Pupil’.
touch) sense organ. globular ball like organ situat- The iris has two sets of smooth
It is the largest organ of the ed in a bony cavity, the orbit, muscles arranged circularly.
human body. of the skull. The pupil is constricted and
Facts about Human Body
Largest and Longest bone in a man .......................................................................... Femur (thigh bone)
Smallest muscle ..................................................................................................................... Stapedius
Smallest bone .......................................................................................................... Stapes (middle-ear)
Total amount of blood in body ................................................................. 5.6 litres (1/15 of body weight)
Life span of RBC ..................................................................................................................... 120 days
Number of RBC's ...................................................... in male 5000,000 /cu.mm /in female 45,00,000/cu.mm
Number of WBC's ...................................................................................................... 5000-10000/cu.mm
Life Span of WBC ..................................................................................................................... 2-5 days
Heart beats ...................................................................................................................... 72 per minute
Average amount of haemoglobin ..................................................................... 14-15 mg/100 ml of blood
Thinnest skin ......................................................................................................... Conjunctiva (eyelid)
Largest endocrine gland ................................................................................................. Thyroid gland
Longest cell in body .............................................................................................................. Nerve cell
Smallest cell in human body ................................................................................................... Sperm cell
Largest cell in human body .......................................................................................................... Ovum
dilated respectively by their of ability for vision and is called Astigmatism: Curvature of cor-
construction, to reduce and Blind Spot. nea become irregular and image
increase the amount of light Lateral to blind spot, there is a is not clearly formed. Remedied
falling on the lens. depressed area of retina, called by cylindrical lens.
In bright light the iris Fovea, which contains only Glaucoma: It is due to increase
automatically shuts tighter, cones and no rods. Ability of
intra ocular pressure in aqueous
reducing the amount of light vision is highest in fovea.
entering the pupil. chamber. Operation is needed at
The anterior compartment is
early stage.
In front of the eye there is a filled with aqueous humour. It
convex lens. The lens is supplies nutrients to lens and Trachoma: It is increased in
attached to the ciliary bodies cornea having no blood Redness of eye and more secre-
by suspensory ligaments. supply, maintain shape of tion of watery fluid. It is due to
Retina is the inner most layer, cornea and support the lens. infection of bacteria, chlamidia
sensitive and made up of many The posterior compartment is trachamastis. Due to this fol-
cells and fibres. filled with transparent licles may form in conjunctiva.
Retina acts like the film in gelatinous material called
Xerophthalmia: It is due to de-
camera. In order to form an vitreous humour, which
ficiency of vitaminA. (A2). Dur-
image on the retina, light must supports the lens and retina.
ing this conjunctiva or cornea
pass through all the media of Colour blindness is a heredi-
becomes Keratinized. It may
eye (cornea, aqueous humour, tary disease.
Squint eye is another eye de- lead to blindness.
lens, vitreous humour)and it
must be brought to focus on fect which can be corrected by Strabimus: In this type eyeball
the retina to form an upside an operation. remain in somewhat bent posi-
down image on it. The parts of eye involved in tion which is due to long ocular
The interpretation takes place eye transplantion surgery are muscles formed during develop-
cornea, sclera and vitreous ment of eye. Operation is needed
in the brain.
humour. at early stage. Also associated
The image formed on the The loss of vision during dim
retina of the human eye is real with squint.
light is called nightblindness.
and inverted. Presbiopia: During this power
Twenty-twenty means perfect
Eye contain receptors called vision. of accommodation of lens de-
photoreceptors viz ‘rods’ and creases due to age factor and
SOME OF THE EYE DEFECTS
‘cone’ cells, which convert the defected metabolism. Also
energy of specific wavelength Myopia: Also known as near known as age sightness. Can be
into action potential of nerve sightness or short sightness. removed by bifocal lens.
fibre. Near object is clear. Far object is
Photofobia: No clear image in
Nerve impulses are carried from not clear Eyeball become longer.
bright light.
rods and cones by bipolar Image is formed in front of
Retina. Can be remedied by con- Emmetropia - Normal vision
nerve cells to the ganglion
cells. The axon of the ganglion cave lens. Cataract - is the condition where
cells converge and leave the Hypermetropia: Also known as lens became opaque which is
eye ball to form ‘optic nerve.’ long sightness or far sightness. due to defective protein metabo-
The spot at the back of eye, Far object is clear, near object is lism leading to blindness. It may
from where the optic nerve fibre not clear. Eye ball become short. be due to disease or old age. It
leaves is covered by a zone of Image is formed behind the is remedied by replacing lens.
retina free from rods and Retina. Can be remedied by con- Colour blindness: It is known
cones. So this spot is devoid vex lens. as daltonism. It is the inability
to distinguish between red and The ossicles transmit the Types of glands - There are two
green colour. It is a sex linked (x- vibration to the inner ear, types of glands
linked) genetic disorder. where they cause waves in the i. Ducted glands - exocrine
Night Blindness: During this fluid called perilymph. glands, ii. Ductless glands -
Perilymph is filled in the coiled, endocrine glands.
Rhodopsin is not resynthesized
while it is regenerated in dim tube called cochlea, in the Deficiency of Parathyroid
middle ear. hormone (PTH) secreted by
light.
Cochlea is a tube coiled, like a parathyroid gland causes
Ear - Hearing small snail shell, of 21⁄2 turns. tetany in which calcium level
The ears have two main func- The sensory structures in blood decreases.
tions respond to different frequency, Adrenal glands are situated
i) Detection and analysis of found on basilar membrane is over the kidneys.
sound. the rods or corti. Adrenal gland has two parts,
ii) Maintenance of balance The internal ear is made up of Adrenal cortex and Adrenal
of the body. bony labyrinth and medulla.
Ear has three main regions - the membranous labyrinth. The Blood pressure is controlled
outer ear, the middle ear and bony labyrinth contains a fluid by Adrenal gland
the inner ear. called perilymph. Adrenal medulla produces
External ear consists of pinna Endocrine Glands & two hormones- adrenalin
and external auditory canal. Hormones and nor- adrenalin.
Pinna is a funnel shaped Largest endocrine gland - Adrenal gland prepares the ani-
cartilaginous flap. It collects Thyroid. mal to fight or flight.
and directs sound waves into Thyroid gland is popularly Adrenaline hormone raises
ear canal. known as Adam’s Apple. the rate of heart beat and
The external canal ends at a Hormones are chemical blood pressure.
delicate membranous diaphra- substances produced by The hormone secreted when a
gm, called eardrum or tympanic endocrine glands (ductless man gets feared is adrenaline.
membrane. glands). Deficiency of insulin leads to
The middle ear is an air- filled Endocrine hormone molecules excess sugar in the blood and
chamber. It communicates with are secreted (released) directly this sugar is excreted in the
that of the pharynx through an into the bloodstream, whereas urine. This disease is known
air filled tube called, Eusta- exocrine hormones (or as diabetes mellitus (hyper
chian tube. glycaemia)
ectohormones) are secreted
Eustachian tube helps to directly into a duct, and, from The main function of insulin
equalize air pressure on either the duct, they flow either into is to control the level of sugar
side of ear drum and thus the bloodstream or from cell to in the body.
allows it to vibrate freely, when cell by diffusion in a process Pituitary gland is an endo-
sound waves impinge on it. known as paracrine signalling. crine gland attached to the
Glands are the organs of the base of the brain.
The vibrating eardrum trans-
mits the vibration to the ear human body which The pituitary gland is called
ossicles. Ear ossicles consists manufacture some liquid 'the master gland' in the body
of the hammer (malleus), the products which are secreted because it controls all other
from the cells. endocrine glands present in
anvil (incus) and the strip
Largest gland in our body is the human body.
(stapes). The stapes is the
smallest bone in the body. the liver. Water balance in the body is
mes
Sex chromoso
mainly controlled by the se-
and
cretion of ADH (Anti Diuretic
om es X X is pr esent in females
Hormone) by hypothalamus gs sex chromos of female joins
In human bein esen t in males. When X
sex chromosom
es XY is pr e baby (XX)
Endocrine and e pr od uc t will be a femal
mosomes th oduct
Exocrine System X of male chro ch ro m os om e of a male, the pr
female joins Y ion of a baby is
The secretions which the and when X of ha t is th e sex determinat
by (XY ). T
endocrine glands produce, do not will be male ba man.
nd en t on sex chromosome of
leave the gland through a duct but depe
pass directly from the cells to the Coenzymes are small organic
blood stream. molecules that transport
Pineal gland is another
The organ in the body which endocrine gland situated in chemical groups from one
accumulates iodine is thyroid brain. Pineal gland secretes enzyme to another.
gland. the hormone melatonin and
Insufficient iodine in the diet Muscular Tissue
seratonin.Pineal gland is also
results in the deficiency of the It is a contractile tissue
known as ‘Biological clock’.
thyroid hormone, thyroxine. consisting of very large cells.
Thyroxine deficiency in body
Exocrine Glands - The unit of muscle tissue is
results in a disease called
Ducted Glands muscle fibre, which is made of
simple goitre. Exocrine glands secrete their myofilaments.
Pancreas is an endocrine gland product through well defined Based on structural and
that produces both an enzyme ducts. functional differences three
and a hormone. Liver is an exocrine gland, types of muscles are reco-
The pituitary gland is called secretes bile in stomach. gnised. Unstriated muscles,
‘the master gland’ in the body Lachrymal gland secrete tears Striated muscle and Cardiac
because it controls all other in the eye. muscle.
endocrine glands present in Salivary glands secrete saliva
the human body. in the mouth. Reproduction
Water balance in the body is Sweat glands seen on skin, Reproduction is a process
mainly controlled by the secrete sweat. by which an organism pro-
secretion of ADH (Anti Sweat is a mixture of sodium duces new individuals or off-
Diuretic Hormone) by chloride and Urea. springs of its own species.
hypothalamus. Spleen is the largest lymphatic Sexual reproduction requires
The normal value of blood gland in human body. one individual of each sex.
sugar is 80 to 120mg 100 ml of Enzymes Testis is the sperm producing
blood. Enzymes are complex chemical organ of man.
Insulin prepared outside the substances consisting, wholely The average period of human
body is known as Huminsulin. or in a large part, of proteins pregnancy is 36-38 weeks -
Thymus is another endocrine produced in the living cells. approximately 280 days
gland situated in front of the Enzymes are proteins that Mother’s milk contain 7% of
trachea. Thymus secretes a catalyze chemical reactions. lactose.
juvenile hormone, Thymosin. Some enzymes are used The part of the body that
Thymus gland becames fully commercially, for example, in comes out first during delivery
developed by about 7 years and the synthesis of antibiotics.S - head
degenerates and disappears ome household products use Identical twins are formed,
after 14 years of age because of enzymes to speed up bio- when the ovum after fertiliza-
the activities of the sex glands. chemical reactions tion splits into two parts.
Vasectomy - Sterilization vagina, accessory genital There are 24 ribs in human
process in male. glands and the mammary body.
Tubectomy - Sterilization glands. The total number of ear bones
process in female. Graffian follicle produce a are six.
Five principal methods of hormone estrogen. In an adult human being, the
asexual reproduction are: The external genital organs of number of vertebrae is 26. Neck
binary fission, multiple fission, females are collectively called region of human has 7 bones.
fragmentation, budding and vulva. Clitoris is the vestigeal The face of a man is made up
sporulation. penis in female. of 14 bones.
Important sexual hormones of Phosphate of lime forms 51%
Human Reproductive System females include estrogen and of bone.
In the human reproductive progesterone. The bones contain calcium
process, two kinds of sex cells, An important sexual hormone phosphates upto 85%
or gametes, are involved. The of males is androgen, and The smallest bone in the hu-
male gamete, or sperm, and the particularly testosterone. man body is the stapes (stir-
female gamete, the egg or When the male ejaculates rup) found in the middle ear.
ovum, meet in the female's during intercourse, semen is Bone marrow contains the par-
reproductive system to create deposited into the female's ent cells that give rise to blood
a new individual. Both the male vagina. From the vagina the cells.
and female reproductive sperm make their way up 'Funny Bone' is a nerve at the
systems are essential for through the cervix and move back of the elbow.
reproduction. through the uterus with help Cranium is the Brain box that
The organs which performs from uterine contractions. If a encloses brain
important functions in mature egg is in one of the Ethmoid is the bone of Nasal
reproduction but neither female's fallopian tubes, a chamber
produce gametes nor secrete single sperm may penetrate it, The total number of bones in
sex hormones are called and fertilization, or the skull is 29.
secondary sex organs. conception, occurs.
Secondary sex organs include Disorders of Bone
the prostate, seminal vesicles, Bones The bones of aged persons are
vas deferens and penis, in Human skeleton is made of more fragile than the bones of
males. In females, secondary bones and cartilages. young persons.
sex organs include fallopian Largest and longest bone is The breaking of a bone is
tubes, uterus, vagina and femur (thigh bone). known as fracture.
mammary glands. The shortest bone in the
When the person feels acute
Extra-abdominal testes are the human body is stapes or pain at the joints, particularly
testes of human males. stirrup bone in the middle ear. while moving the joints, is
Testes is the male reproductive
Human bones are made up of referred to as arthritis.
organ. The sperms are
produced by spermatogonia. Calcium phosphate and Cal- Osteoarthritis is commonly
The male sex hormone, testo- cium carbonate. known as ‘‘wear and tear’’
sterone, is produced by Leydig The total number of bones in arthritis.
cells. human skull is 29. Osteoporosis is another bone
The copulatory organ in male The total number of bones in disorder common in woman
is the Penis. an adult human body is 206. over 50 years, and is
Female reproductive system A new born baby has 300 characterised by decreased
consists of a pair of ovaries, a bones, but 94 bones fuse to- bone mass and increased
pair of oviducts, the uterus, the gether as it grows. susceptibility to fractures.
Teeth Important Vaccines
There are 20 milk teeth in hu- Vaccine ......................................... Name of the Scientist
man body. Small pox ....................................... Edward Jenner (1786)
Cholera ......................................... Louis Pasteur (1880)
A full set of permanent teeth
Diphtheria and tetanus .................. Emil Adolf Von Belming
consists of 32 teeth.
and Shiba saburo kita sato.
The hardest material found in TB Vaccine .................................... Leon Calmatte and
human body is enamel. Camille Guerin.
Milk teeth appear by the age Polio Vaccine ................................. Jonas E. Salk
of 7 months, adult teeth ap- Measles Vaccine ............................ John F. Enders
pear from 6th year onwards
and wisdom teeth appear be-
tween the ages of 17-30 years.
National Research Institutes in India
Fluorides are the compounds
that prevent tooth decay. Central Drug Research Institute ................................. Lucknow (U.P)
One of the ingredients of Cattle Breeding Research Institute .......................... Hissar (Haryana)
tooth paste is calcium fluo- National Dairy Research Institute ............................ Karnal (Haryana)
ride. Forest Research Institute .......................................... Dehradun (U.P)
Enamel is the hardest Centre for Cellular and Molecular biology ...................... Hyderabad
substance in the body. Indian Cancer Research Centre .......................................... Mumbai
Skin Central Marine Research Institute ...................................... Chennai
Skin is the largest organ in Central Public Health Engineering Research Institute ........... Nagpur
human body. National Institute of Communicable Diseases ..... Delhi
Colour of the skin is due to
the presence of melanin.
The main function of human of the body to maintain the
skin is protection and excre- body temperature. Sweat Dermatology is the branch of
tion. glands help to eliminate excess science that deals with the
Perspiration is an usual way heat from body. study of skin and its diseases.
Genetics
Father of Modern Genetics
Genetic engineering is the
Rev. Gregor Mendel was the
branch of Science.
Augustinian priest and scientist. The
Genetics is the science of
theories of heredity attributed to Gregor
genes, heredity, and variation
Mendel, based on his work with pea plants.
in living organisms.
Experiments with Plant Hybrids, in which
A gene is the fundamental bio-
Mendel described how traits were
logical unit which is transmit-
inherited, has become one of the most enduring and influential
ted from one generation to the
publications in the history of science.
next. It is the unit of heredity.
Mendel’s study showed that one in four pea plants had
It remains at a definite posi-
purebred recessive alleles, two out of four were hybrid and one
tion on a chromosome. In man
out of four were purebred dominant. His experiments brought
about 1,00,000 genes are
forth two generalizations, the Law of Segregation and the Law
known to be found in 23 pairs
of Independent Assortment, which later became known as
of chromosomes.
Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance.
Genetics deals with heredity
and the laws that govern it. The number of chromosomes
Rev. Gregor Mendel is the The nitrogen base Thymine in in a human cell is 46.
'Father of Modern Genetics.' DNA is replaced by Uracil in Presence of an extra chromo-
Mutation is the process of RNA.
some in the foetus - mongol-
sudden heritable change un- RNA has sub-species m-RNA
dergone in a gene due to ism.
and t-RNA, which carries the
change in its composition. The Bacteria which receives
stored information of the DNA
Mutation is a change that is genes from another species is
for translation into various
inherited called Transgenic bacteria.
proteins.
DNA (Deoxyribo nucleic acid) The genes transfer from one
In protein synthesis, the ge-
is the principal genetic mate- species to another species
netic code is carried from the
rial of all living beings. through Plasmids.
DNA of the nucleus to the ri-
The structure of DNA mol- The gene with Bt.Toxin is iso-
bosomes of the cytoplasm by
ecule was discovered by lated from Bacillus
m-RNA.
Watson and Crick in 1953. Thuringiensi’s Bacteria.
Recombinant DNA involves DNA fingerprinting has
helped to solve many myster- Bt. Cotton is the cotton plant
transplanting a piece of DNA with Bt.Toxin gene.
of one organism to the DNA ies and crimes.
of another, which finds appli-
cation in the production of In- DNA testing sis
dividuals on the ba
terferon and Insulin.
testing is us ed fo r identification of in ed fo r pa rent al
DNA has a double helical DNA profiles. It is also
us
r re sp ec tiv e D N A hu m an D N A
of thei .9% of
structure of nucleotide chains
an d ra pe in ve sti gation. Although 99 of th e D N A is
testing ough
consisting of deoxyribose
ce s ar e th e sa m e in every person, en r. Th e D N A
sequen m anothe
sugar and nitrogen bases-
nt to di sti ng ui sh one individual fro lec Je ffr eys in
differe by Sir A
Adenine, Guanine, Thymine
tec hn iq ue wa s fir st reported in 1984 nt in g is no w
testng ge rpri
and Cytosine. It stores and
d. Jeffr ey ’s te ch ni que of D NA fin It is al so us ed
Englan boratories.
transfers hereditary informa- inals in forensic la l
used to identify crim o the true biologica
tion and creates its own rep-
m in e pa ter ni ty or maternity, th is wh
at
to deter
lica. a child.
father or mother of
ECOLOGY Charles Darwin
Ecology is the scientific study He discovered a hypothesis for the origin
of the relation of plants and and continuation of life on Earth. His
living organisms to each other theory is also called the Theory of
and their surroundings. Evolution. Charles Darwin became
Ecology is closely related to famous when he hypothesized that all
the disciplines of physiology, life evolved from common ancestors
evolution, genetics and through evolutionary processes of
behavior. natural selection. Darwin is the first of
the evolutionary biologists, the
Biodiversity describes all
originator of the concept of natural
varieties of life from genes to
selection – Theory of Natural
ecosystems and spans every
Selection.
level of biological organization.
An ecosystem is the largest Charles Darwin collected a large
number of specimens and concluded that the Species
functional unit in ecology
arose as a result of natural selection. He published his theory in his
because it includes both living
book On the Origin of Species (1859). "The Voyage of the Beagle"
(biotic) and non-living
- another important book. "In the struggle for survival, the fittest
(abiotic) environments.
win out at the expense of their rivals because they succeed in
June 5 is considered as World
adapting themselves best to their environment' - Charles Darwin.
Environment Day.
Ecomark is given to
environment friendly products
of BIS (Bureau of Indian There are six major air B.O.D gives an idea of the
Standards) pollutants : carbon monoxide, amount of pollution in water.
Ecological friendly tourism is sulphur oxides, nitrogen B.O.D is measured as the weight
termed ecotourism. oxides, particulates, hydro (in mg) of oxygen that is con-
Prof. R. Mishra is called as carbons and photochemical sumed in 1 litre of water stored
‘Father of Ecology in India’. oxidants. for 5 days in darkness at a con-
The rich source of energy The mode of transfer of energy stant temperature of 200C.
which never causes of food synthesised in plants Water pollution is caused by
atmospheric pollution is solar through a series of organisms sewage, sullage and industrial
energy. of an ecosystem with repeated effluents.
The conditions under which eating and being eaten is The mass death of living
an organism lives constitute its known as food chain. organisms including man in
environment. A few physical The rich source of energy one night at Bhopal (1984),
factors that greatly influence which never causes atmo- was due to the leakage of
the environment are Light, spheric pollution is solar en-
methyl isocyanate (toxic gas)
Temperature, water and gases. ergy.
into the air from an insecticide
A biome is a unit resulting from The interlocking of many food
plant managed by Union
the interaction of a regional chains is called 'food web'.
Carbide.
climate, animal and plant life A simple sequence in which the
grass grows, a cow eats the Environmental planning
and substrate. The types of
biome are grasslands, deserts, grass, a human eats the cow or organisation is NEERI. NEERI
coniferous forests, deciduous drinks its milk, is an example of is National Environment Engi-
forests, tropical forests, tundra, food chain neering Research Institute. It
fresh water and marine B.O.D means Biological Oxygen is in Nagpur.
environment. Demand. The estimation of First Earth Summit (1992) at Rio
de Janerio (Brazil) was related Global warming
to conservation of genetic re- Global Warming is the increase of the average
sources of plants and animals. temperature on Earth. As the Earth is getting
Second Earth Summit (2002) at hotter, disasters like hurricanes, droughts and
Johannesburg (South Africa). floods are getting more frequent. It happens
Petroleum, coal, fossil fuel etc when greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide,
are non-renewable sources. water vapor, nitrous oxide, and methane)
Domestic wastes contain biode- trap heat and light from the sun in
gradable pollutants. the earth’s atmosphere, which
Most hazardous metal pollut- increases the temperature.
ant of the automobile exhaust Over the last 100 years, the
is lead. Unleaded petrol is free average air temperature near the
of lead. Earth’s surface has risen by a
Biomass is a renewable source little less than 1 degree Celsius or
of energy. 1.3 degrees Fahrenheit.
Ultra Violet rays are non- Increase of one degree Celsius makes the earth warmer now
ionising radiations damaging than it has been for at least a thousand years.The top 11 warmest years
to DNA. on record have all been in the last 13 years, said NASA in 2007, and the
Nuclear radiations may cause first half of 2010 has already gone down in history as the hottest ever
cataract, an eye disease. recorded.
Strontium-90 (Sr90) causes leu- Projections from the UN climate change body the Intergovernmental
kaemia (blood cancer). Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) say that global surface temperature will
Radiation causes leukaemia. probably rise a further 1.1 to 6.4 degrees Celsius (2.0 to 11.5 degrees
CSE – Centre for Science and Fahrenheit) during the 21st century.
Environment
Origin & Evolution provided proof that micro- Greenhouse
Life was present on the earth organisms come only from Eff ect
about 3.9 billion years ago. other micro- organism. s heat up
Theories :- (iii) Cosmic origin : This notion Green house ga se
e part of
advocates that life could have our planet. They ar
(i) Special creation : This idea e and trap
originated once or several Earth's atmospher
embodies that life on Earth is the sun,
times in various part of galaxy warmth emitted by
divine creation. . It is this
in universe. thus heating Earth
(ii) Spontaneous generation : ouse ef-
process – the greenh
According to this theory, life (iv) Terrestrial or Biogenic origin : life on the
This idea holds that life arose fect – that makes
originates spontaneously from .
by series of sequential planet possible
lifeless matter ie. abiogenesis. se ga ses
chemical reactions. This is Nat ur al gr eenh ou
However this idea has been put e, methane,
modern concept. like carbon dioxid
to rest when Louis Pasteur e have al -
and nitrous oxid
mosphere.
Tall grass grasslands of North America ................................ Prairie ways been in the at
e wor ld’s
Short grass grass lands ...................................................... Plains With out th em, th
mperature
average surface te
Plants of deserts ....................................................... Xerophytes 8 degrees
would be a chilly -1
Coniferous forests ...................................... Boreal forests (Taiga) we enjoy
Celsius. However,
ture of 14
Trees those shed their leaves ....................................... Deciduous an average tempera
Tropical forests ........................................ Evergreen Rain forests. degr ees.
Tundra .......................................................................... Treeless
Koppenhagen Summit
The 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference, commonly known as the
Copenhagen Summit, was held at the Bella Center in Copenhagen, Denmark.
This was the 15th Conference of the Parties (COP 15) to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change and the 5th Meeting of the Parties
(MOP 5) to the Kyoto Protocol. The Koppenhagen Accord is a significant first
step in engaging the world's largest emitters in the global effort to slash carbon
emissions.
The Copenhagen Accord was drafted by the US, China, India, Brazil and South
Africa. Accord is not legally binding and does not commit countries to agree to
a binding successor to the Kyoto Protocol, whose present round ends in 2012.
l
Kyoto protoco ted Nat ions
The most important method of
pr ot oc ol to th e Uni conversion of pollutant is
toco l is a C or FCCC),
T he K yoto Pro lim ate C hange (UNFCC oxidation in air.
ventio n on C international
Framework Con m in g. T he UNFCCC is an Sewage waste are always rich
glob al w ar opted on 11
aimed at fighting Pr ot oc ol was initially ad in bacteria and organic
treaty . T he upon was an
environmental pa n. T he target agreed substrate.
in K yo to , Ja year 2012.
December 1997 5. 2% fr om 19 90 levels by the In organic nitrates and
n of
average reductio phosphates stimulate
combining with Hb. excessive plant growth in lake.
The effect of particulate matter The organochlorides in
Radiation Pollution depends on the size and fate pesticides are highly persistent
Nuclear fuel cycle, combustion of particles on our body. and pass through food chain.
of coal, accidents in nuclear power The effect of gaseous pollutant They accumulate in fatty tissue
plants, medical therapy and depends on their solubility in and affect the nervous system.
diagnosis, scientific research, water. Change in colour is a very
detonation of nuclear weapons in NO2 at high concentrations common effect produced by
testing and war, television sets are impairs functioning of lungs by dyes, inorganic substances
sources of radiation. Foeteses are accumulating water in air like chromium and iron
more sensitive to radiation. Cancer spaces. compound.
may be increased by ionising Polluted air cause respiratory Noise is physical form of
radiation. disorders such as bronchitis, pollution.
Ozone layer filters out solar emphysema and lung cancer Kyoto protocol - To reduce the
ultraviolet radiation which is especially in children. emissions of Green House
harmful to most animal and Fluorides destroy leaf tissues. Gases (GHGs)
plant life. 90% of ozone resides Oxides of Nitrogen and Montreal Protocol - To keep
in stratosphere. fluoride reduce crop yields. ozone layer intact (To reduce
One chlorine atom can destroy Hydrocarbon such as CFCs)
about 1,00,000 ozone ethylene causes premature Cartegena Protocol - To
molecules. falling of leaf, flower bud and preserve bio diversity &
Tetraethyl lead and tetramethyl curling of petals. Biosafty protocols
lead are used in automobiles Smaller particles are separated Stockholm convention - To
as anti- knocking agent. from harmless gases by reduce the use of POPs
Lead, SO 2 , NO 2 and CO cyclone collector or (Persistent Organic Pollutants)
impedes oxygen transport by electrostatic precipitator. or Dirty Dozen
Evolution of Man
Apes are represented by gibbons, orangutans, (together called anthropoids) as well as lemurs,
chimpanzees, and gorillas. lorises and tarsiers, ( together called prosmians)
‘Homo sapiens’ appeared in either Africa or Generally they have forward directed eyes,
Asia 5,00,000 years back and spread out. Today gripping hands and feet opposable thumbs and
no other species is as widely distributed as big toes. They tend to have nails rather than
animals. claws with gripping pads on the ends of the digits,
Neanderthal specimen of man is excavated from all adaptations to the climbing mode of life.
Neander Valley of Germany. The Neanderthals Ramapithecus : Extreme reduction of canines,
lived 100,000 to 30,000 years ago. They were modification of the chewing teeth, to be much
the typical cave humans, short with heavy stronger. Development of bipedalism :- walking
brows, retreating foreheads, large jaws, a on two feet, and than an erect posture and free
lumbering gait and stooped posture. They wore hands. Terrestrial living and balance of head on
clothing and were good hunters. the spinal column. Terrestrial gathering economy.
‘Cro - magnon’ man bears the closest Australopithecus :- Walked erect with a curved
resemblance to modern man. He was back Larger size of brain barrel like trunk with
completely errect, and 6 feet tall. He belonged robust build. Meat eaters and gathers, but still
to Stone Age. He is the most recent pre-historic not hunters but scavenger.
man. Homo erectus : More rounded head, 5 feet in
Dryopithecus, Ramapithecus, Australo height and had strong bones. Made stone tools,
pithecus, and Homo erectus are prehuman started hunting ‘Domesticated’ fire.
types, ranging from 20 million years to 12 million Homo Sapiens : More strengthened chewing
years back. muscles more developed brain (all lobes
The fossil record of humans and other primates developed). Humans, known taxonomically as
is incomplete. Homo sapiens.
Modern man and apes are recent products of Anatomically modern humans originated in Af-
evolution and both are thought to have rica about 200,000 years ago, reaching full be-
descended from a common extinct ancestral havioral modernity around 50,000 years ago.
form. The view that humans evolved from apes The study of human evolution encompasses
has been invalidated. many scientific disciplines, including physical
Primates are members of the order of mammals anthropology, primatology, archaeology, linguis-
that includes monkeys, apes and human tics and genetics.
mide) is a hallucinogenic drug. Euthanasia means mercy kill-
Medical Science Eldepyl is a new wonder drug ing. It was first introduced
to treat Parkinson’s disease (a legally in Netherlands and in
Pharmacy neurodegenerative disease). Belgium second time.
Small pox was the disease Aspirin (i.e., Acetyl Salicylic Computer Axial Tomograph
that led to the discovery of Acid) is commonly used as a (CAT) scan is used for photo-
first antiviral vaccine. pain reliever. graphing a selected plain of
Small pox is the only disease The chief ingredient of the the human body using X-rays
totally eradicated in 1980 mosquito repellant cream is for diagnosing the cause of a
throughout the world by vac- derived from neem plant. disease.
cination. B.C.G. (Bacillus Calmette CAT Scan is also known as
Tetracyclins (antibiotics) Guerine) Vaccine is adminis- CT Scan.
helps to cure trachoma, an eye tered to prevent tuberculosis.
disease. CAT scanner was invented by
Tranquillizers are drugs to Godfrey Hounsfield.
Antibiotics are the drugs calm the nervous system and
which are produced by bacte- MRI-Scan means Magnetic
prevent tension and worry
ria and which act against other Resonance Imaging Scan.
while sedatives are drugs
strains of bacteria. PET Scan is Positron Emis-
used to induce sleep.
e.g.penicillin,streptomycin, sion Tomography scan. It is
Shanvac-B is India’s first in-
chloromycin. used for studying brain.
digenous genetically engi-
Antihistamines are the sub- neered Hepatitis - B vaccine Otoscope is an instrument
stances that relieve the symp- Viagra is a tablet for stimulat- used for examining the outer
toms of asthma, hay fever and ing sex potential. ear and ear drum.
other allergies. Morphine works as an anal- Physiotherapy is the treat-
Antipyretics are the drugs gesic drug and is classified as ment of diseases or disabili-
used medically to lower body narcotics. ties by massaging and exer-
temperature. An antibiotic is a substance cise.
Leprosy is also known as produced by a living organ- Cancer
Hansen's disease. ism, especially a bacterium or Uncontrolled growth of cell,
The vaccine, triple antigen is a fungus. which can be caused by
given to children to immunise Penicillin is produced from Oncogenes are cancers.
them against Diphtheria, Per- fungus known as Penicillium A biopsy is done in order to
tussis (whooping cough) and notatum. detect the presence of can-
Tetanus. CP-20-961 is a malarial vac- cer.
Quinine is an alkaloid that cine. Biopsy means examination of
cures malaria.
tissue cut from living body.
Quinine is extracted from the Diseases and Lithotripter is the machine
tree ‘Cinchona officinalis.
Azidothymidine (AZT) is a
Treatments used to break up kidney
drug used to combat AIDS. Avian influenza virus is stones by ultra sound waves.
To prevent polio, two vaccines responsible for contagious Oral Rehydration Therapy
Sabin (oral) and Salk (inject- disease “Avian flu” affecting (ORT) is useful in combating
able) vaccine are offered. birds. cholera, dysentery and gas-
A drug that prevents infection Avian flu is due to the mutated troenteritis.
and decay is called an anti- genes of H5N1 virus. In medicine, radioactive iso-
septic. SARS is severe Acute topes are used as tracers for
LSD (lysergic acid diethyla- Respiratory Syndrome. diagnostic purposes.
Diseases and Affected Organs Contagious diseases are dis-
Osteomyelitis ................................................... Vertebral column eases which spread from one
Polio ...................................................... Central nervous system person to another by physi-
Malaria ............................................................................... RBC cal contact.
Meningitis ................................................. brain and spinal cord Infectious diseases are diseases
Typhoid .................................................... Intestine, whole body caused by a specific organism
Diphtheria ........................................................................ throat and spread through air, water,
Bright’s disease .............................................................. kidney food, etc.
Eczema ................................................................................ skin The loss of elasticity of
Hepatitis ............................................................................. liver muscles results in a disease
Jaundice ............................................................................. liver called Parkinson’s disease. It
Tuberculosis ..................................................................... lungs was invented by an English
Pneumonia ........................................................................ lungs surgeon namely James
Gingivitis,pyorrhoea .......................................................... gums Parkinson.
Goitre ............................................................................. thyroid Malaria is caused by Plasmo-
Trachoma ........................................................................... eyes dium vivax.
Arthritis ............................................................................ joints Malaria is spread by female
anopheles mosquitoes and it
Arsenic - 74 is used to detect Protozoans cause amoebic affects the RBC.
tumours. dysentery, malaria, African Plague is spread by rat fleas.
Sodium - 24 is incorporated sleeping sickness, Kala-azar Dengue fever is spread by
into salt (NaCl) and used to etc.. Aedes aegypti mosquitoes.
detect the presence of blood Fungi causes athelete’s foot Tuberculosis, Smallpox and
clots in the circulatory system. and ringworm. Influenza are diseases that
Cobalt-60 is used in treatment Haemophilia, sickle cell spreads through air.
of cancer. anaemia and Huntington’s Tuberculosis is known as
China is famous for the mode disease (It is a hereditary dis- 'White Plague.'
of medical treatment called ease resulting in the involun-
Acupuncture. Tetanus can cause lock jaw.
tary movement of body parts.)
Anaemia is the shortage of are congenital diseases (ie, Cholera, typhoid, dysentery
haemoglobin in blood. present at birth). and diarrhoea are water borne
The number one killer dis- Diphtheria is a disease of diseases.
eases in the world are tuber- throat. Exophthalmic goitre is known
culosis and cardiovascular as grave’s disease.
D.P.T. Vaccine (Triple Vac-
disease respectively. Disease causing microorgan-
cine) is used to prevent diph-
Pneumonia, gonorrhoea, tu- isms are called pathogens.
theria, pertusis or whooping
berculosis, tetanus (or lock-
cough and tetanus. The virus which attack bacteria
jaw), botulism, syphilis, ty-
Rubeola is the medical name is called bacteriophage.
phoid, cholera, leprosy,
plague, whooping cough etc of the disease measles. Arthritis and rheumatism af-
are bacterial diseases. Elephantiasis is caused by the fect the joints.
Chickenpox, rubeola (German nematoda ‘Wuchereria Hydrophobia is a disease
measles), measles, mumps, in- bancrofti’. caused by the bite of a mad
fluenza, common cold, AIDS, The vector of the disease fi- dog. It is commonly known as
hepatitis, polio and rabies are lariasis (elephantiasis) is culex rabies. It can be prevented by
viral diseases. mosquito. injections discovered by Louis
Pasteur. Injections are known Common Drugs
as ARV ( Anti-Rabies Venom).
Anaesthetics Drugs that block sensory nerves and make a patient
Rabies is caused by a virus, fully unconscious to prevent him from feeling pain.
and it affects the nerve cells
Analgesics Drugs used to prevent or relieve pain like aspirin.
of the brain.
Antibiotics Drugs used to prevent growth of bacteria or other
Alzheimer’s disease Amyloid germs.
beta (A ) deposits are the
Antihistamines These drugs are used to relieve symptoms of asthma,
fundamental cause of this dis- hay fever and other allergies.
ease. Antipyretics Drugs used to lower body temperature.
Trypanosomiasis is transmit-
Hormones Drugs used to combat hormone deficiency that cause
ted from animal to man by the diseases.
tse-tse fly and causes the
Narcotics Drugs that deaden the nervous system and prevent a
dreaded disease sleeping sick- person from feeling pain.
ness. Kala-azar (Leishmania-
Sedatives Drugs used to induce sleep, like barbiturates and
sis) is transmitted by bromides.
sandflies.
Tranquillizers Drugs that calm nervous system and prevent worry,
Hypothermia is the loss of
tension etc.
body heat (below 31.70C).
People living in hilly areas Vaccines Drugs that are injected to help the body to develop
resistance to disease or immunization of the body.
suffer from goitre because of
the lack of iodine in diet and
drinking water. stimulates the formation of tan. But an excess is harmful
Minamata disease resulting antibodies. and can cause skin cancer and
from mercury poisoning A colour-blind person has dif- damage to retina.
ficulty in distinguishing be- Test tube baby refers to the
causes brain damage, birth
tween green and red colour. phenomenon, where the fer-
defects and death.
This disease mainly affects
Virus is responsible for tilization is external and devel-
males.
commoncold, the disease Hookworm enters the intes- opment is internal.
which affects largest number tine by penetrating through World's first test tube baby
of people in the world. the skin. Louise Brown was born on
Amnesia is related to the loss 25th July 1978.
Miscellaneous
of memory. World health day is observed
Antigen is a substance which UV radiation also give us a sun on April 7th.
Important Digestive Enzymes
Amyalse, (ptyalin) Salivary glands in mouth Starch to maltose
Pepsin Gastric glands in stomach Proteins to peptones
Trypsin Pancreas in abdomen Proteins to peptones
Amylase Pancreas Carbohydrate to maltose
Lipase Pancreas Fats to fatty acid and glycerol.
Erepsin Intestinal glands in small intestine Peptides to amino acids
Maltase Intestinal glands maltose to glucose
Lactase Intestinal glands lactose to glucose
Sucrase Intestinal glands sucrose to glucose.
Agriculture dens in India
Famous Botanical Garre, Kolkata
of India, Alipo
Agri Horticultural Society
The chemical contained in to- Shibpur, Kolkata
Indian Botanical Gardens,
bacco is nicotine in root. taka
Lalbagh, Bangalore, Karna l Nadu
Quinine, Tannin and Cinna- tan ica l Garde ns, Udagamandalam, Tami
Government Bo
Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh
mon are obtained from the Jhansi Botanical Garden, desh
rden, Saharanpur, Uttar Pra
bark of the tree. Saharanpur Botanical Ga
Darjeeling, West Bengal
Tea leaves contain 18% tan- Lloyd's Botanical Garden, rsity, West Bengal
nts, North Bengal Unive
nin. Garden of Medicinal Pla lode Kerala
and Research Institute Pa
T x D and D x T are high yield- Tropical Botanic Garden
ing hybrid varieties of coco-
nut. Fertilizers ily and rapidly degraded in
Hybrid is an animal or plant nature.
Azolla acts as biofertilizer in Biological control of insects
that has been bred from two
association with the blue-green means control of insect popu-
different types of animals or
algae. It is used in the cultiva- lation in exploitation of natu-
plants. tion of rice. ral prey-predator relationship.
HYV means High Yielding Va- N.P.K. mixtures are fertilizers D.D.T. (an insecticide) has a
rieties. with the mixtures of nitrogen, tendency to remain stable in
Foot and Mouth disease oc- phosphorus and potassium. environment for long periods.
curs in cattle, sheep and pigs. Nitrogen helps in greening of Bordeaux mixture is a fungi-
Cocoon stage of silkworm pro- plants and their rapid growth. cide.
duces silk. Phosphorous helps in flower- BHC is Benzene Hexa Chlo-
Silk worms are reared on mul- ing of plants. ride.
Potassium helps in the fruit Loss of agricultural productiv-
berry.
forming stage in plants. ity due to pests and diseases
The most important stimulant Salinity of soil can be neutral- is about 30%.
in coffee leaves is caffeine. ized by using pyrite and gyp- Sporeine is a bio insecticide.
Opium is extracted from the sum. Sporeine was the first bio in-
immature fruits of the plant Iron is an essential micro-nu- secticide to be developed on
poppy(Papaver somniferum). trient required for the devel- a commercial scale.
Paper is chemically cellulose. opment of plants. Natural insecticide 'azadira-
Sunflower oil has the maxi- Blue-Green algae works as a ctin' is obtained from Neem.
mum polyunsaturated fatty bio-fertilizer. The pesticide used in founda-
acids. tions of buildings for prevent-
Mint is propagated through
Pesticides ing, termite attack is 'Aldrin.'
rhizomes. Pesticides include insecti-
cides, fungicides, nemati-
Forestry
For safe storage, the moisture
cides, rodenticides and herbi-
contents of foodgrains Turpentine oil is obtained from
cides.
should be less than 14%. pinus tree.
D.D.T and Parathion pesti-
The acid present in the soil cides are banned in most of Sweet potato is a modification
and substances formed by the the developed countries. Ma- of adventitious roots.
decomposition of decayed jor drawback of D.D.T as a Plants and animals living in a
green matter is ‘humic acid.’ pesticide is that it is not eas- given area form a community.
Numbers in Human Body
Number of bones ........................................ 206 Rate of blood pressure ........................... 120/80 mm. Hg.
Number of muscles ..................................... 639 Number of RBC's ................. in male - 5,000,000/Cu. m.m.
Number of ribs .............................................. 24 in female - 45,000,000/Cu. m.m.
Number of bones in skull .............................. 22 Life span of RBC ............................................. 120 days
Number of bones in neck ............................... 7 Life span of WBC ........................................... 2-15 days
Number of bones in face ............................... 14 Amount of blood ............................................. 5-6 litres
Number of cranial nerves ...................... 12 pairs Average amount of haemoglobin .. 14-15 mg/100 ml blood
Number of spinal nerves ....................... 31 pairs Weight of brain .................................................. 1.4 kg.
Number of heart beat ........... 70-72 times/minute
Respiratory rate ................... 16-20 times/minute Test and Diseases
Byopsi ....................................................... Cancer
Lepromin Test .......................................... Leprosy
Rain forests occur in Western Ghat and East- Eliza Test ....................................................... Aids
ern Himalayas. Western Blot ................................................. Aids
Herbarium is a collection of 'preserved Shik Test ................................................. Diptheria
plants.' Tuberculin Test ................................. Tuberculosis
Papsmear ......................................... Uterus Cancer
The 'Great Banyan Tree' is in Indian Botani-
Glycocelated Haemoglobin ..................... Diabetics
cal Garden Sibpur, Kolkata. E.E.G .............................................. Brain Diseases
Wild Life Protection Act was enacted in India in E.C.G .............................................. Heart Diseases
1972. Mamography .................................... Breast Cancer
The threat of extinction of tigers forced the India Widal Test ................................................ Typhoid
Vasarman Test ......................................... Syphilles
government to initiate the 'Project Tiger' on April 1,
1973. (BSI) with its head office in Kolkata came into
In India, paper is mainly manufactured from existence in 1890.
Bamboos. National Botanical Garden (National Botanical
Mango, Papaya, Banana, Guava, Pineapple, Research Institute, NBRI) is situated in Lucknow.
Mangosteens etc are included
in tropical fruits.
Human Genome Project (HGP)
Silent valley is a conserved HGP was launched in 1988, with the Nobel
forest. laureate Dr. James D. Watson as the director
Tropical rain forest is seen in and the project envisaged.
Assam. The Human Genome Project originally
Nicotine is a poisonous aimed to map the nucleotides contained in a
alkaloid present in Tobacco. human haploid reference genome (more than
Brazil is the native place of three billion).
cashewnut. Objective of the Human Genome Project
Rainforests occur in Western is to understand the genetic makeup of the
Ghat and Eastern Himalayas. human species, the project has also focused
‘Vanamahotsav’ started in on several other nonhuman organisms such as
1950. E. coli, the fruit fly, and the laboratory mouse.
Chipko movement is Project identified and map the
connected with plant approximately 20,000–25,000 genes of the
conservation. human genome from both a physical and
Botanical survey of India functional standpoint.
The Ramsar Convention Cloning
The Ramsar Convention is an international treaty for the conserva- Cloning is the process of
producing many identical
tion and sustainable utilisation of wetlands. Ramsar Convention
organisms or clones (clone
(1971) was drafted at Ramsar, Iran. The headquarters is located in means exact carbon copy or
Gland, Switzerland. copies of a single parent).
World Wetlands Day occurs
It is the production of one
on 2 February each year.
individual organism from a
nucleus, cell or asexual offshot
Tallest Animal ........................................................................... Giraffe
or another.
Largest Bird ............................................................................ Ostrich
Ian Wilmut and his colleagues
Smallest Bird................................................................. Humming Bird
at the Roslin Research Institute
Largest snake ..................................................................... Anakonda
in Scotland cloned the first
Largest Mammal ............................................................. Blue Whales
sheep Dolly.
Largest animal in land ............................................... African Elephant
Longest flying bird ............................................................... Articturn The young one of Dolly,
Largest Reptile .................................................................... Crocodile named Polly, was born in 1998.
Fastest animal........................................................................... Chetta Ian Wilmut is considered as
The Scientific Names
Indian elephant ............................. Elephas maxims
Frog ......................................... Rana hexadactyla
Man ................................................ Homo sapiens
Cat ............................................ Felix domesticus
Hornbill ....................................... Buseros bywrnis
Peacock .......................................... Pavo cristatus
Tiger ............................................. Panthera tigris the father of cloning.
Carbon copy is the first cloned
Cockroch ........................... Periplaneta americana
cat, in 2001, at Texas A and M
Earthworm ............................ Pheretima Posthuma university.
Crow ......................................... Corvus Splendens Cell cloning is based on the
Parrot ....................................... Psittacula krameri property of totipotency ( in
Penguin .................................. Aptenodytes forsteri plant) or pleuripotency ( in
animals).
Sparrow.................................... Passer domesticus
Totipotency is a potential
Whale .................................. Balaenoptera indica
ability of plant cell to grow into
Cow ..................................................... Bos indica complete plant. Pleuripotency
Pig ...................................................... Sus scrofa is the potential ability of an
Camel .................................. Camelus dromedarius animal cell to develop into any
Horse ............................................ Equus caballus type of cell in the animal body.
Species cloned
Donkey ............................................ Equus asinus
Tadpole, Carp, Mice, Sheep,
Rabbit ................................ Oryctolagus cuniculas Rhesus Monkey, Gaur, Cattle,
Squrrel ............................... Funambulus pennanti Cat, Dog, Rat, Mule, Horse,
Water Buffalo and Camel.