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PYQ 1200 Q/A Part - 1
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Kerala PSC Study Material General Science
PHYSICS Physics is the study of the proper- tor quantity and its unit is The branch of science which ties of matter and energy. m/s2. deals with the study of relative A decrease in the velocity with movement of interacting MOTION time is called deceleration or surfaces is called tribology. The length of the path be- retardation. It is otherwise In order to increase stability, tween two points is the dis- known as negative accelera- a person climbing a hill bends tance between them. tion. forward. Physical quantities that have • If the acceleration remains The flying of birds is a con- only magnitude and no constant, i.e., it does not sequence of Newtons third direction are called scalar change with time it is said to law of motion. quantities. be uniform acceleration. Equations of Motion Eg: Distance, speed, time, • The earth attracts every- Three exists some relation be- work, mass, density, tempera- body towards its centre. The tween velocity acceleration ture etc. acceleration with which freely and the time intervals during falling bodies are attracted which we study the motion of Physical quantities that have towards the earth is called the a body. These relations are both magnitude and direction acceleration due to gravity. It called equations of motion. are called vector quantities. is same for all bodies and its They are: Eg: Displacement, weight, value is 9.81 m/s. V = u + at velocity, acceleration etc. Inertia is the tendency of a S = ut + 1/2 at2 Speed is the distance travelled body to continue in its state by a body in unit time. It is a 2as = v2 – u2 of rest or the state of uniform scalar quantity. Its unit is m/s. where v - final velocity motion along a straight line. u - initial velocity Distance Galileo discovered law of in- Speed t - time interval Time ertia. An athlete run some distance a - uniform acceleration Velocity is the displacement before taking a long jump, by s - displacement per unit time. It is a vector quantity and its unit is m/s. running the athlete gives him- The force required to stop a self larger inertia of motion. moving body depends on its Displaceme nt mass and also on its velocity. Velocity As the train starts moving, a Time man sitting inside leans back- Momentum (P) is defined as Acceleration is the rate of wards because of inertia of the product of mass and ve- change of velocity. It is a vec- rest. locity of a body i.e, P = mv DeputyCollectorRankFile Momentum is a vector quan- called adhesion. etal force. tity Weight can be defined as the Friction can be reduced by Unit of momentum is Kg m/s. force with which earth attracts changing over from sliding FORCE a body. to rolling Weight, w = m × g When a man circles round the Force is any influence that earth in a spacecraft, his mass tends to change the state of Mass remains constant while rest or the uniform motion in a remains constant but weight weight varies from place to becomes zero straight line of a body. place. Unit of force is Newton Two object lossing the same Friction is a force that resists weight when immersed in wa- The force of attraction bet- ween like molecules is called the movement of one surface ter must have the same den- cohesion. over another. sity The force of attraction be- The force required by a re- Centrifugal force helps to tween unlike molecules is volving body is called centrip- separate cream from milk. GRAVITATION The attractive force of earth, or other celestial body, on an object is called gravity. The earth attracts everybody towards its centre. The acceleration with which the freely falling bodies are attracted towards the earth is called the acceleration due to gravity (g). Value of g = 9.8 m/s2 The value of g at the centre of earth is zero. The value of g is very high at Gravitation keeps the planets in orbit around the Sun. polar region. of the earth. Therefore, the ac- region and low in the equatorial The value of g is very small at celeration due to gravity expe- region. equitorial region. rienced on the moon will be less The weight of a body on the The weight of a substance is than the acceleration due to moon will be less than its zero at the centre of earth. As gravity experienced on the weight on the earth. This is so the mass of the substances because the mass of the moon 1 increases the gravitational earth. This will be about g. 1 6 force between them also is of the mass of the earth 81 On the moon an astronaut can- increases. not drink lemonade with the The weight of a body in 1 help of a straw because - There earth is very high in the polar its radius is of the radius 3.66 is no atmosphere on the moon. DeputyCollectorRankFile The mass of a body which The line on earth’s surface smallest surface area. determines the gravitational passing through the places The spherical shape of rain having zero dip is called the drops and mist drops are due force of attraction due to earth magnetic equator. It passes to surface tension. The is called gravitational mass. through Thumba. spherical shape is attained to Escape velocity is the minimum VISCOSITY AND maintain equilibrium. speed which a spacecraft must Soap bubbles also tend to form have to escape from the earth's SURFACE TENSION themselves into shapes with gravitational force. It is Capillary action is responsible minimal surface area. 7 miles/s. (or 11.2 km/s) for the absorbance of water by Soap is added to water to The escape velocity of a body the plants and oils by the wick reduce the surface tension, so is different and different of lamps. clothes (or whatever else) get Fluids flow with zero viscosity much cleaner. celestial bodies. is called superfluids (anti- Water has a fairly low viscosity; In the absence of an effective gravity property). things like shampoo or syrup force of gravity, bodies become The force within the liquid have higher viscosities. weightless in artificial satellites. which opposes the relative Viscosity also depends on Gravitational field is the space motion of one layer over the temperature : engine oil, for around a massive body in other is called viscosity. instance, is much less viscous which gravitational force of Venturimeter is used for mea- at high temperatures than it is attraction is felt. suring the rate of flow of liq- in a cold engine in the middle Planets move slower along uids. of winter. Viscosity is the internal fluid their orbits when they are ELASTICITY friction. farthest from the sun (at Surface tension is the property apogee) and they move faster Elasticity is the ability of a possessed by a liquid surface body to return to its original along their orbits when they whereby they appear to be shape and size on the removal are nearest to the sun (at covered by a thin elastic of the deforming force. perigee) memberane. Glass is more elastic than Gravitation is responsible for Surface tensions is caused by steel and steel is more elastic keeping the Earth and the other unbalanced molecular cohe- than rubber. planets in their orbits around sive force. If a body does not regain its Unit of surface tension is N/m. original size and shape after the Sun; for keeping the Moon When the temperature of fluids the removal of deforming force, in its orbit around the Earth; increases viscosity decreases. it is called a plastic body and for the formation of tides; for The surface tension decreases this property is called plasticity. natural convection, by which with rise of temperature. Eg: Clay, Plasticine etc. fluid flow occurs under the Surface tension is a property influence of a density gradient of a liquid by which the free DENSITY & and gravity; for heating the surface of a liquid behaves like PRESSURE interiors of forming stars and a stretched elastic membrane, planets to very high tempera- having contractive tendency. Mass The larger the surface, the Density tures; and for various other Volume more energy there is. To phenomena observed on minimize energy, most fluids Density of a body Earth. Re lative density assume the shape with the Density of water DeputyCollectorRankFile Eye Opener ut havi ng any hi gh vo lt age cable witho ts on a very out due to When a bird si fe at he rs tends to spread r on it , it s of the bird in sula ti on cove ie; feat he rs on ei ther side electrostati c re pulsive force. sitively charged . (e ith er both become po d of like natu re takespla ce. become charge ly ch ar ge d) .H ence repulsion e negative or both becom Thrust The amount of water vapour Pr essure N / m 2 or Pascal Area in the air is termed as humidity. The total normal force exerted When a piece of ice floating by a fluid on a surface is called on the surface of water in a to accomplish work - it is like thrust. Its unit is Newton (N). the "currency" for performing bucket melts completely, the Pressure increases with depth work. To do 100 joules of work, water level will remain the The pressure inside a baro- you must expend 100 joules of same. meter remains high under a energy. An iron nail floats on mercury calm climate. but sinks in water because the Power is the rate of doing work Mercury is used as the liquid specific density of iron is or the rate of using energy, in thermometers as it does not lower than that of mercury and which are numerically the wet glass. higher than that of water. same. If you do 100 joules of Pascal’s law states that pre- A petrol fire cannot be ssure in a fluid in equilibrium work in one second (using 100 extinguished by throwing joules of energy), the power is is the same everywhere. water on it since the density 100 watts. Water distribution in cities, of water is more than the Unit of energy is joule. flush tank, hydraulic brake, density of petrol, water sinks The energy possessed by a below the petrol when it is hydraulic lift, hydraulic press etc are working based on body due to its position in a poured over a petrol fire. field of force or configuration The density of sea water is Pascal’s law. The lactometer used to test is called potential energy. higher than the density of P.E = mgh river water, therefore it is the purity of milk is based on the principle that the greater m = mass g = gravity easier to swim in the sea than density of a liquid, the lesser h=height (distance between in river. This is why a ship will be the immension of an the body and the surface) entering from river mouth to sea rises up a little. object. Energy of a body due to its Ice floats on water because its motion is called kinetic energy. WORK, ENERGY weight is less than the weight Kinetic energy = 12 mv 2 of an equal volume of water. AND POWER (m = mass, v = velocity) Ice floats on water but sinks Work refers to an activity The change in the kinetic in alcohol because the density involving a force and energy of an object is equal to of alcohol is lower than that movement in the directon of the the net work done on the of water. force. A force of 20 newtons object. The density of water is maxi- mum at 40C pushing an object 5 meters in Mechanical energy can be The pressure at a point on a the direction of the force does either kinetic energy (energy of surface is the thrust acting 100 joules of work. motion) or potential energy normally per unit area around Energyis the capacity for doing (stored energy of position). that point. work. You must have energy Objects have mechanical DeputyCollectorRankFile energy if they are in motion speed in a circle in a horizon- Machanical advantage of a and/or if they are at some tal plane over his head, does load position relative to a zero no work. machine = effort potential energy position Unit of work is Newton metre Rate of doing work is called (Nm). WAVES power. Its unit is watt LEVERS Electromagnetic waves are work coupled periodic electrical Power A lever is a simple machine time and magnetic disturbances Escape velocity is the velocity consisting of a rigid rod pivoted created by oscillating electric at a fixed point called the with which a projectile must be charges. fulcrum. It is used for shifting projected in order that it may All waves of the electro mag- or raising a heavy load or escape the earth’s gravitational netic spectrum travel at the applying force in a similar way. pull. same velocity, a quantity A body in which a force is felt known as the speed of light. The escape velocity from the is called resistance (R) and the The speed of light is approxi- surface of the earth is 11.2 kms force applied here is called mately 3×10 8 m/s (about The escape velocity from the effort (E). 186,000 miles per second). planet, Jupiter is 61 km/second. If the fulcrum comes in Electromagnetic waves can For Mercury it is 42 km/second. between resistance and effort travel through vacuum. According to law of such levers are called Ist order Transverse wave is a type of conservation of energy of levers. energy wave in which motion Albert Einstein, energy can Eg: balance, nail puller see-saw, of the particles is perpendicu- neither be created nor be lar to the motion of the wave. a pair of scissors etc. destroyed but it may be Wave on a rope and waves on If resistance comes in between the surface of water are trans- transformed from one form to effort and fulcrum then such verse. another. levers are called II nd order If the motion of the particles The energy possessed by the levers. is along the direction of mo- water collected in the reser- Eg: Wheel barrow, nut cracker tion of waves, it is called a lon- voir of a dam is potential en- etc. gitudinal wave. ergy Sound waves in a medium When a force acts upon an If effort is between resistance and fulcrum such levers are (solid, liquid or gas) are longi- object causes a displacement tudinal. called III rd order levers. then, it is said that work was Transverse waves travel in done upon that object. the form of crests and troughs There are three key ingredi- Eg: Pincers, Icetongs etc. while longitudinal wave trav- ents to work - force, displace- Efficiency of a machine els in the form of compres- ment, and cause. Power output sions and rarefactions. The work done by a force on = Power input Earthquake waves are infra- a body is defined as the prod- sonic waves. uct of the magnitude of the force and the distance moved Levers can be used to exert a large force over a small distance at one end by exerting only a in the diection of force. small force over a greater distance at the other. Work done = force × distance A boy, swinging a stone, tied to a string, with a uniform DeputyCollectorRankFile The property which distin- the sound waves get reflected Hz) are called infrasonic guishes transverse waves and they can change their waves. from longitudinal waves is direction. They use this Sounds of frequency higher polarization. method to catch insects also. than 20,000 Hz are known as Diffraction is the property in Since sound waves need a ultrasonic and are inaudiable. waves of turning round the medium to travel they cannot SONAR stands for Sound edges of an obstacle. be transmitted through Navigation And Ranging. It Sound can be heard around a vacuum. uses ultrasonic waves. corner due to diffraction. The audible frequency of Sound travels faster throu- When a wave strikes a surface human ear is between 20 hertz gh solids, expecially, throu- of separation of two different and 20,000 hertz (20 KHz). gh metals. media, some of it is thrown A speed greater than the back into the original medium. speed of sound is referred to The intensity of sound is This property of bouncing of as supersonic. measured in decibel. the waves is called reflection. Velocity of sound in the air is The intensity of polite con- The property of sound reflec- 340 m/s. versation is 40 db-30 db. tion is used by bats (which Sound consists of waves of During night the allowed in- cannot see in the dark) for fly- alternate compression and tensity of sound in a hospital ing during night . rarefaction that transmit ki- area is 40 db. Visible light is electromagnetic netic energy through a me- The reverberation of sound in wave in the range of frequen- dium. a hall results due to continued cies 4.3×1014 to 7×1014 Hz. Frequency of a sound wave reflection Electromagnetic waves do not is th e number of wa ve- Sound travels faster in steel require any material medium lengths (vibrations) that are Sound can travel only for their propagation, they completed in a given period through a medium. It cannot can travel in vacuum. of time. travel through vacuum. It trav- RADAR is the abbreviation of Doppler effect is the change els through solids, liquids and Radio detection and ranging. in a sound wave’s frequency gases. (and wavelength) that is Equipment for generating or SOUND caused when the hearer and using sound includes musical Sound is a travelling wave. sound source move relative instruments, hearing aids, Sound requires medium to to each other. sonar systems and sound travel. Sounds are distinguished reproduction and broad Sound cannot travel through from each other by pitch (fre- casting equipment. Many of vacuum. quency), loudness (inten- these use electro-acoustic Study of sound is known as sity) and quality. We ca n recogn i se our transducers such as Acoustics. friends from their voices due microphones and loud Echo and reverberation are to the quality of sound. speakers. due to the reflection of sound. For the production of echo Phonogram is a machine to reproduce sound. How do bats fly at there should be a minimum distance of 17m between us Th e speed of soun d de- night? and the reflecting surface. pends on the medium the Bats can fly in the dark Bats can fly in the dark waves pass through. because ultrasonic waves because they can generate Sounds with frequencies produced by them during flying are lower than the lowest limit reflected back to them from the ultrasonic sound and if there obstacles in their way and hence is any hindrance in their way of human hearing (about 20 they can fly with out difficulty. DeputyCollectorRankFile LIGHT LASER is a source of intense James Clark Maxwell monochromatic light in the ul- founded that lights are ‘The corpuscular theory’ traviolet, visible or infrared re- electromagnetic waves. related to light was proposed gion of the spectrum. Wave theory of light was dis- by Issac Newton in 1675. LASER beams are used in the covered by Christian Study of light is known as op- medical field to perform minute Huygens. tics. operations. Microwave Amplification by Light an electromagnetic radia- LASER was discovered by Stimulated Emission of Radia- tion. Theodore Maiman in 1960. tion was discovered by Charles Through vacuum electro Visible spectrum is the band H. Towns. magnetic waves travels with a of colours obtained when a ray speed of 2.9979×108 m/s. of light passes through a prism. change of direction of light Paper, cardboard and stone are Spectrum consists of seven when passing from one examples for opaque substa- transparent substance to nces (substance which do not colours viz Violet, Indigo, Blue, another. When we put a stick passess light). Green, Yellow, Orange and Red in water it seems to be bended. Substances which allow the (VIBGYOR). It is due to refraction. light to pass through are called Violet light is scattered most, Diffraction is the spreading out transparent substances. blue somewhat less, and green, of waves of light as it passes Eg: glass yellow and orange still less, in through a narrow aperture. that order. The particle which is sup- The spreading of light rays Red light is scattered least. posed to travel faster than light towards the screen from a is tachyon The beautiful colour of the projector in film theatre is due Tachyons were discovered by soap foam and oilspread water to diffraction. E.C.G. Sudarshan. is due to interference of light. Dispersion is the splitting up On a rainy afternoon a rainbow Red, green and blue are the of light ray into different is seen in the east primary colours. colours. Rainbow is formed A rainbow is always seen in the Green objects placed in red due to dispersion. The seven opposite direction of the sun. light will appear black. colours of light has different Rainbow is caused by reflec- In the spectrum violet light has wavelength. Hence when light tion, refraction and dispersion short wave length and high fre- passes through a prism each of light by the water particles quency. While red light has colour gets refracted at present in the atmosphere. the highest wave length and different angles. LASER is Light Amplification the least frequency. A bubble of water shines be- by Stimulated Emission of Ra- A diamond sparkles due to to- cause of total internal reflec- diation. tal internal reflection because tion. Laser is the surface intense ra- it has a high refractive index. Refraction of light through air diation. Scattering of light is respon- having very large temperature sible for sky being seen as gradients causes a mirage. Eye Openes: blue. This is because blue and A periscope is a device which If two bulbs of power 40w and violet colour have short wave works by the principle of re- length and hence scatter more. flection and refraction. 100w are joined in series and MASER is Microwave Ampli- When there is thunder we see connected to the domestic fication by Stimulated Emis- the lightning first and hear the electric supply terminals, the sion of Radiation. It was dis- thunder later because the ve- 40w bulb glows much more covered by Charles H. Towns. locity of light is greater than brighter than the 100w bulb. Refraction is the sudden the velocity of sound. DeputyCollectorRankFile The term light year is a unit cal lens, instead of a spherical quence of the phenomenon of employed in measuring Dis- lens. multiple refraction and inter- tance. As the age advances, the ference The rays which appears to elasticity of eye becomes very An astronaut on an earth sat- originate outside the earth - much reduced. As a result the ellite will observe the sky as The cosmic rays near point of eye recedes Black. In a Doctor’s stethescope the gradually resulting in pres- The shortest height of a plane sound is intensified because of byopia. It can be corrected by mirror required to show the full reflection of sound convex glasses. size image of a person of height Light from the sun reaches the When we observe distant L earth in 8 minutes. ‘L’ cm is 2 cm . objects, the focal length of the Light travels fastest through eye lens increases and if we Dioptre is the unit of power of vacuum. Through vacuum observe the objects near by, lenses. light travels with a speed of the focal length of eye lens Concave mirror is used as a 3×108m/s. decreases. burning glass. The shortest distance for clear Twenty - Twenty means per- For the rear view, motorists use vision is 25 cm. convex mirror. fect vision. Myopia or short sightedness To concentrate light on the The image formed on the retina of teeth, the dentists use concave is such a type of defect in the human eye is real and in- mirrors. which one can see nearby ob- verted. Film is a part of the camera jects clearly but is difficult to The lens in the human eye in which is analogous to the see objects at long distances. convex. retina in the human eye. Here image of the substance Pigments are substances used falls in front of the retina. to colour paints, filters, plas- HEAT AND THER- Myopia can be corrected by tics and other materials. using a concave lens. MODYNAMICS The sky generally looks blue Hypermetropia or long Absolute zero is the lowest because the blue colour of sightedness is such a type of possible temperature which is short wave length is scattered defect in which one can see equal to 0K or -273.16°C or - more than the longer waves of distant objects clearly whereas 459.69°F. red light. nearby objects look blurred. Temperature is the degree of Here the image of the sub- It is true that the violet waves hotness and heat is a form of stance falls behind the retina. are dispersed, even more than energy which increases the Hypermetropia can be cor- the blue. However, the sky temperature of a body. rected by using a does not appear violet be- Specific heat capacity of a convex lens of appropriate fo- cause the sunlight is relatively substance is the amount of cal length. weak in violet light. heat required to raise the tem- Persons suffering from both Red colour has the longest perature of the substance myopia and hypermetropia wavelength and shortest through 1°C use bifocal lenses to with- frequency whereas violet As we go up in the atmo- stand the condition. colour has the highest sphere, the temperature de- Astigmatism: This defect is frequency and shortest wave creases. due to the cornea not being length. Plasma is the fourth state of spherical. This defect can be The formation of brilliant matter. Solid, liquid and gas are corrected by using a cylindri- colours in soap film is a conse- other three states of matter. DeputyCollectorRankFile A black surface absorbs heat The law of magnetic poles more than other colours. Eclipse states that like poles repel, un- Cryogenics is concerned with Lunar eclipse occurs when the like poles attract. the production, control and earth comes between the sun A freely suspended magnet and the moon. While solar stands vertical at magnetic application of extremely low eclipe occurs when the moon south pole temperatures. comes between the sun and the “Ferromagnetic’’ sub- At ultra high temperature mat- earth. stances are those which can ter exist in plasma form 99% be magnetised to a great ex- of matter in the Universe is in Water has maximum density at tent. plasma form. 4o C. Water expands when it Iron steel, nickel ,cobalt,alloys One calorie is the amount of freezes.Water occupies maxi- of these substances, and ga- heat needed to raise the tem- mum volume at 0oC. dolinium are ferromagnetic perature of 1gm of water by The Clinical Thermometer is substances. 1oC. specially designed to measure Paramagnetic materials have Steam causes more severe human body temperature. feeble magnetic properties. burns than water of the same Normal human body tempera- Platinum , solutions of salts temperature because steam ture is 36.90 C (or 98.4°F) of iron, oxygen, manganese, possess more heat energy due Melting point of mercury is - palladium, osmium etc are ex- to latent heat than water. 39°C and that of alcohol is - amples of paramagnetic sub- stances. Transmission of heat from 115°C. Inside a magnet, direction of one point to another without The main source of energy in magnetic lines of force is from heating the medium is called the biosphere is solar energy south to north. radiation. which reach earth by means of Tesla is the unit of strength Cotton dresses are safe for radiation. of magnetic field. wearing while cooking. Water expands on freezing. The instruments which are Due to this reason when wa- Conduction is the process of dependent of magnetic power ter is filled in a bottle and is of electricity are fan, tele- net energy transfer through a allowed to freeze the bottle phone receiver, Dynamo etc. substance without the move- breaks, and during winter wa- ment of the substance itself, ter pipes break in cold re- but by molecular collisions. ELECTRICITY gions. Very poor conductor, such as Laws of electrolysis were for- glass are called Insulators. Air MAGNETISM mulated by Michael Faraday is a good insulator. (Father of electricity). Mica is a good conductor of ‘Lodestones’, are natural mag- Electric fittings are earthed heat, but a bad conductor of nets. because in case of a short cir- electricity. Magnetic lines of force cannot cuit, the current passes to the Perspiration is maximum, when penetrate certain materials as easily as they can penetrate air earth to overcome the dam- temperature is high and air is ages. or vacuum. Such materials are humid. called “diamagnetic.’’ Filtered water at normal tem- Evaporation takes place at all Diamagnetic materials have perature is better conductor of temperatures and is accompa- negative susceptibility. electricity than filtered hot nied by cooling. Bismuth, antimony, zinc, silver, water and distilled water. Melting point of ice can be copper, gold, lead, water, al- Conductors are substances raised by the decrease of pres- cohol, hydrogen and the in- that allow electric charges to sure. ert gases are diamagnetic. flow through it . DeputyCollectorRankFile Metals and graphite are good force or voltage across oppo- conductors of electricity. site forces when subjected to Conductors Insulators Silver is the metal having a mechanical strain and con- silver glass lowest resistance. versely, to expand or contract copper rubber The best conductor of elec- in size when subjected to an gold oil tricity is silver. electromotive force. aluminum asphalt Free electrons constitute cur- 220-230 volt is the voltage at iron fibre glass rent in a conductor. which the alternate current steel porcelain Insulators do not allow current (a.c) is supplied for house brass ceramic to flow through it . hold use in India. bronze quartz Current through a conductor The frequency of household mercury (dry) cotton is the flow of electrons a.c in India is 50 hertz. graphite (dry) paper through it. An inductor is a device which dirty water (dry) wood Rubber, plastic, paper, glass, concrete plastic, air, passes dc but blocks ac. mica etc are insulators. diamond, Alternating current is used Elements such as silicon and pure water germanium allow feeble cur- more widely than Direct Cur- rents to pass through them rent. resistance to the electric current and they are known as semi- ac (alternating current) is more and melts at a fairly low tem- conductors. dangerous than dc (direct cur- perature. The fuse wire must Air without moisture (dry air) rent). have a low melting point. is an insulator. Usually the air inside an elec- A fuse wire is used to prevent tric bulb is removed because The unit of electric charge is an unduly high electric cur- when the filament (tungsten) is Coloumb. It is equal to the rent to pass through a circuit. heated in the presence of air, it charge of 6.25×1018 electrons. Capacitor is a device used to forms oxide by combining with Ch arg e store electrical energy but it Current oxygen present in the air and is not a device to store elec- Time readily gets fused. tric charge. A high current is produced in Nichrome is used as a heating The emf or potential difference a low resistance circuit when element in many appliance be- measured in volt is called volt- two wires of main comes in cause it has high resistivity and age. contact with each other. This it resists oxidation in air when red hot. A convenient unit to measure is called short circuiting. An electric bulb makes a bang electric power is the kilowatt Electric bulbs are filled with when it is broken because there hour (kwh). This is often sim- gases like argon, neon, is a vacuum inside the electric ply called a unit. nitrogen etc. bulb. When the bulb is bro- 1 kwh = 1000 watt x 3600 sec- When an isolated conducting sphere is given a positive ken air rushes in at a great onds charge, its mass decreases. speed from all sides to fill the In our houses, electric wiring This is because, ‘giving vacuum and this produces the is done in parallel connection positive change’means sound. so that all instruments in the ‘taking electrons out of it’. To avoid overloading, a de- house could get equal supply The principle on which quartz vice called a ‘fuse’ is inserted of electricity. crystal in watch works is peizo in series with the circuit. when two cells of e.m.f electricity. Peizo electricity is The fuse is a piece of wire ‘V’volts each are connected the property of some crystals made of financial Lead. in series the effective emf is to develop an electromotive The fuse offers a great deal of V+V=2Vvolts DeputyCollectorRankFile When one cell is reversed ,the is connected in the live wire Germanium, silicon, carbon effective emf is V-V=0 volts, Along with fluorescent tubes etc are semi conductors. ie, zero volts. are fitted with a choke. Here A transistor transfers a sig- In parallel connection of the choke coil steps up the nal from a low resistance to equal emf cells,whatever be line voltage. high resistance . the number of cells used the An electrical appliance is The word transistor came effective emf will be equal to earthed to prevent shock from the process of transfer the emf of a single cell. One should not connect a and the resistor. When we want a stronger cur- number of electrical appli- ELINT is electronic intelli- rent for a longer time parallel ances to the same power gence. connection is used. socket because this can dam- Triode was invented by Lee A source of emf containing age the domestic wiring due De Forest. two or more cells is called a to over heating IC chip is a circuit which battery. A capacitor (condenser) is performs the functions of In a dry cell the negative used to store electric charge transistors, diodes, resistors, electrode(cathode) is zinc and "Hydro Power" is the term condensers etc altogether. positive electrode(anode) is used for electricity produced The largest IC chip manu- carbon rod. through water facturing company in the The emf of a voltaic cell is Electricity for domestic pur- world is INTEL. 1volt. pose is measured in kWh Electrons are carriers of The emf of a dry cell is 1.5 The power of ordinary torch current in a npn transistor. volts. cell is 1.5 volt. Holes are the carriers of Colour of the light of sodium In the rechargable batteries current in a pnp transistor. vapour lamp is yellow. used in touch light, electric- The frequencies transmitted Colour of the light of chlorine shavers etc. nickel and cad- by a TV station is called vapour lamp is green. mium are used as electrodes. channel. Light of nitrogen vapour lamp Soft X-rays are X-rays having is red. ELECTRONICS high wavelength and low Light of mercury vapour lamp energy. As these are absorbed Electronics is the study of is white. by body tissues they are not nature, control and applica- Light of neon vapour lamp is used in taking photographs of tion of electrons. orange red. internal organs. Light of hydrogen vapour Modem is Modulator De- X-rays having short lamp is blue. modulator. wavelength but high energy In our houses we get 220V Rectifiers are used to convert are called hard X-rays. These ac.The value 220 represents Alternating Current (AC) to are used in the photography effective voltage Direct Current (DC). of internal organs. The advantage of ac over dc An electronic oscillator is a In order to study internal is that it can be transmitted device which converts DC atomic structure of crystals, over long distances with mini- energy into AC energy. we use X-rays mum power loss Silicon is used in solar cells. “IC” chips for computers are Resistance of carbon decrea Materials whose resistivity usually made of Silicon ses with increase of tempera- lies in between conductors The process which makes the ture. and insulators are called semi current to pass in the same In an electrical circuit a fuse conductors. direction is called rectification DeputyCollectorRankFile TELECOMMUNI- Alexander Graham Bell in- CATION vented the telephone. A revolution in wireless tele- The first commercial tele- communications began in the phone services were set up in first decade of the 20th cen- 1878 and 1879 on both sides tury, with Guglielmo Marconi of the Atlantic. winning the Nobel Prize in Telex means Teleprinter Ex- Physics in 1909 for his pio- change. neering developments in wire- INTELSAT (International less radio communications. Telecommunication Satellite The first commercial electrical Organisation), with its head- telegraph was constructed by quarters in Washington DC, Sir Charles Wheatstone and was established on February Sir William Fothergill Cooke, 12, 1973. It operates space and its use began on 1839. equipment and earth stations Optical fibre provides cheaper owned by telecommunication bandwidth for long distance entities in each country. communication INTELSAT’S 13 satellite sys- tem provides about two- thirds of the world’s interna- Samuel Morse tional telecommunication ser- Samuel Finley Breese vices to more than 140 coun- Morse was an American tries including India. contributor to the invention In 1901, Guglielmo Marconi Father of cybernetics - of a single-wire telegraph established wireless communi- Norbert Weiner system based on European cation between St. John's, RADAR is Radio Detection telegraphs, co-inventor of Newfoundland and Poldhu, and Ranging. the Morse code. Cornwall (England), earning RADAR is a device that uses him the Nobel Prize in Phys- radio waves to detect the po- ics for 1909 NUCLEAR PHYSICS sition of objects such as aeroplanes, missiles etc. A Geiger Counter or Geiger - The Nobel Prize in Radar was invented byAlbert H. Muller Counter is used for de- Physics 2010 Taylor and Leo C. Young. tecting and measuring radia- The Nobel Prize in Physics 2010 The first telecommunications tion. was awarded jointly to Russian device was the telegraph. Radio-Carbon Dating or Car- born scientists, Andre Geim and bon dating, widely employed to Konstantin Novoselov “for ground A television camera takes 25 or 30 electronic photographs determine the age of fossils of breaking experiments regarding (called frames) of a scene ev- animals or plants. The radio-iso- the two dimensional material tope carbon-14 is used in Car- graphene”, a super-thin and ery second. bon dating process. strong form of carbon with high Hybrid computers are a com- conductivity that can be used for Chain reaction is a self sus- bination of the analog and taining series of nuclear fis- touch screens and light panels. digital computers. sions, each one started by DeputyCollectorRankFile n Nuclear Fuosino 232 which becomes lead-208; and Fissi rubidium-87 which changes avily wei gh ed into strontium-87; and potas- ess of fo rmation of a he ed The pr oc or e low wei gh sium-40 which changes into s by th e fu si on of two or m th e m os t likely nucl eu fu si on . O n earth, argon-40. nucl ea r rium and nucleus is ca lled –T ri ti um reaction . Deute Nuclear fusion is also known is Deute ri um of nucl eus of fusion reaction hy dr og en . The splitting as thermo-nuclear reaction th isotopes of ed nucl ear Tritium are bo vi ng eq ua l weigh t is ca ll because it demands extremely o pieces ha Nuclear an atom into tw di sc ov er ed nuclear fission. high temperatures. ahn in 19 39 ons in the fission. Otto H a m as si ve nu cl eus into phot A breeder reactor is that which litt in g of ic fi ssion is the sp other subatom produces more fissionable m a ra ys , fr ee neutrons, an d ese tw o form of gam between th material than it burns. m ai n differen ce pa rt icles. The ssion is the sp li tt ing of an The enormous energy re- se s is th at fi pr oces more smaller on es leased in an atomic explosion atom in to two or th e is due to the conversion of while fusi on is mass into energy. Neutron is used to trigger-off neutrons emitted in a previ- the nuclear fission reaction. Alpha particles () are posi- Atom bomb is an example of ous fission. tively charged. Basically nuclear fission reaction, while Proton was discovered by rays are Helium nuclei. Rutherford. Hydrogen bomb is that of Gamma rays are electromag- nuclear fusion reaction. Electron was discovered by netic radiation emitted by the More energy is produced in a J.J.Thomson. nuclei of radioactive ele- fusion reaction than fission James Chadwick discovers the ments. reaction. neutron. A tracer is minute amount of The monozite found abunda- Out of the three radiations - a radioisotope, added to a ntly in coastal areas of Kerala alpha, beta, and gamma, large amount of non-radioac- contains thorium. gamma radiation is most pen- tive isotopes of elements. The temperature required for etrating. Half-life is the time taken for the maintenance of fusion is Enriched uranium is uranium half of any amount of a radio- about 350000000°C. with more of the isotope of active isotope to decay. Uranium - 235. Radiocarbon 'carbon - 14' ATOMIC The age of rocks may be cal- has a half-life of 5,730 years. REACTORS culated through radioactive Isotopes used in dating rocks dating using uranium iso- include Uranium-235 which Nuclear power is the fourth- topes. largest source of electricity in becomes lead-207; thorium- India after thermal, hydro and Power Plant Location State renewable sources of elec- Narora Atomic Power Station Narora Uttar Pradesh tricity. Rajasthan Atomic Power Station Rawatbhata Rajasthan In 2010, India has 19 nuclear Tarapur Atomic Power Station Tarapur Maharashtra power plants in operation generating 4,560 MW while 4 Kakrapar Atomic Power Station Kakrapar Gujarat other are under construction. Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant Kudankulam Tamilnadu The first atomic reactor in In- Madras Atomic Power Station Kalpakkam Tamilnadu dia is 'Apsara' in Trombay Kaiga Nuclear Power Plant Kaiga Karnataka (Maharashtra) DeputyCollectorRankFile NPCIL The original fuel in the fast travelled by light in one year Nuclear Power Corporation breeder reactor is plutonium through space. of India Limited is a Public and uranium oxides or car- 1 light year = 9.46×10 12 Sector Enterprise under the Kilometres bides. administrative control of the 1 Parsec = 3.26 light years Department of Atomic Energy Cadmium rod is used in a re- A galaxy is a vast collection of (DAE), Government of India. actor to absorb neutrons. billions of stars, dust and The main objective of NPCI Willers Frank Liby discov- hydrogen gas isolated in space is operating the atomic power ered carbon dating. from similar systems. stations and implementing Coal is the most important raw Galaxies are the building the atomic power projects for blocks of the universe. material for thermal power generation of electricity plant. The sun and the eight planets Flyash is a waste product of belong to the milky way galaxy, whose Indian name is Akash- India's first breeder reactor is thermal power plants. Ganga. set up at the place known as Cobalt-60 is commonly used Kalpakkam in Tamil Nadu. Milky way is a spiral shaped in radio therapy because it galaxy. There are nearly 1011 The early reactors were emits beta rays which has stars in the galaxy. known as Atomic Piles. more energy than the X-rays. Among numerous dim stars in Heavy water , graphite and the sky, there are some groups neutrons are used as modera- SPACE PHYSICS of bright stars. These groups tor in nuclear reactors. of stars stars. These groups Coolant is a fluid used in Space exploration began with of stars forms certain shapes nuclear reactors to remove the the launching of Russia’s or patterns and are called heat produced in the core. Sputnik-1 into space on constellations. The conste- The coolant used in fast October 4, 1957. llations were given the name breeder reactors is generally Sputnik-2 carried a dog of the figures they resembled. liquid sodium. ‘Laika’to space. There are 89 constellations. Heavy water is used as a cool- The U.S.A. entered the space The largest of these is Hydra, ant as well as a moderator arena on January 31, 1958 with which contains at least 68 stars for nuclear reactors. the launching of the Explorer-1. visible to the naked eye. The moderator in a nuclear This satellite is credited with A satellite is a heavenly body making the important that rotates around a planet. reactor slows down the fast discovery of the Van Allen Venus is the brightest object moving neutrons. radiation belts around the in the night sky, leaving out the The commonly used modera- earth, where electrons and moon. It is visible either in the tors are graphite, heavy water protons from the sun are early morning in the eastern and berilium. trapped by earth’s magnetic sky or in the early evening in The main source of solar en- field. the western sky and is called ergy is nuclear fusion. The extremely large distances “morning star” and “evening between the various heavenly star”. The fast breeder reactor gets bodies like the stars and Sun is our nearest star. It is a its name from the fact that it planets can be expressed in hot sphere of gas - 74% utilizes excess free neutrons terms of two units namely light hydrogen, 25% helium and 1% to breed new fissionable ma- year and parsec. other elements. terial. One light year is the distance The sun is at a distance of 8 DeputyCollectorRankFile light minutes from the earth. ie, Communication Technology is light travels in one year at the it takes about 8 minutes for located at Ahmedabad. speed of 3,00,000 km/sec. light to travel from the sun to The credit for starting space Astronomical Unit is another the earth. science research in India goes unit of distance in space. It is An asteroid is an irregular, to Vikram Sarabhai. the mean distance between rocky hunk, small both in size Moon has no atmosphere earth and Sun. One light year and in mass compared to a because its gravity is not contains nearly 63282 Astro- plannet. sufficient for any atmosphere nomical Units. In the belt which lies between to held on to it. Par sec (Parallactic second) is Mars and Jupiter there are All stars have idential chemi- yet another unit of distance in thousands of minor planets or cal composition but they differ asteroids. space. One par second is equal in surface temperatures. This to 3.08x1016m. Ceres is the largest known is the reason for the difference asteroid. Lambert is the unit of inten- in spectra of stars. Meteor is the streak of light sity of light. The outward stream of protons observed in the sky. They are Pascal is the unit of pressure. and electrons on the surface formed when a particle of the sun during solar flares and Angstrom is the unit of the matter enters the earth’s sun-spot activity constitute wave length of light. atmosphere and become the solar wind. Poise is the unit of viscosity incandescent as a result of of fluid. friction with atmospheric UNITS AND Curie and Rutherford are unit atoms and molecules. Meteor MEASUREMENTS of radio activity. are also called shooting stars. Unit of Plane angle is radian Stars twinkle because of The purest form of gold is 24 Unit of solid angle is steradian refraction of light. carats. Ornaments are usually Newton is the unit of force The tail of a comet points away made of 22 carat gold. One Joule is the unit of energy and from the sun. This is due to metric carat is equal to 200 work radiation pressure. milligram. Unit of power is watt The colour of a star is an The weight of precious indication of its temperature. Hertz is the unit of frequency gems are also measured Coulomb is the unit of electric The plannet that has got a well developed set of rings is in carat. charge saturn. One gallon is equal to 4.546 Unit of electric capacitance is India’s satellite launching litres. farad station is situated at Srihari- One horse power is equal to 746 Ohm is the unit of electric re- kota. watts. sistance When a person is orbiting in a Light year is a unit of distance Becquerel is the unit of radio used in astronomy. activity satellite, his weight becomes zero. Light year is the distance that Henry is the unit of inductance The ink of the pen leaks out in an aeroplane because pressure Several systems of unit have been in use for describing measurement. of ink inside is more than the The common systems are the C.G.S. system (centimeter, gram, second); ambient pressure. the F.P.S. system (foot, pound, second) which is the British system, the The Space Application Centre MKS system (meter, kilogram & second) and now internationally for training in Satellite accepted is the System International Units, abbreviated as S.I. units. DeputyCollectorRankFile Quantity Unit Weber is the unit of magnetic Length .......................................................................... Metre (m) flux Mass ...................................................................... Kilogram (kg) Lumen is the unit of luminous Time ........................................................................... Second (s) flux Electric Charge .......................................................... Ampere (A) Lux is the unit of illuminance Temperature ................................................................. Kelvin (K) Unit of electric conductance Frequency.................................................................... Hertz (Hz) is Siemens Force, Weight ............................................................. Newton (N) Joule is the unit of work. Work, Heat .......................................................................... Joule Dyne is the unit of force. Power, Radiant flux ........................................................ Watt (W) Newton is yet another unit of Pressure, Stress ........................................................... Pascal (Pa) force. 5 Electric charge or flux ..................................................... Coulomb (C) One newton = 10 dynes Electrical potential difference, Electromotive force (emf) ..... Volt (V) Centigrade, Fahrenheit are Electric resistance, ................................................................ Ohm the units of temperature. Electric capacitance ........................................................ Farad (F) Degree is the unit of angle. Magnetic flux ............................................................ Weber (Wb) Mho is the unit of conduc- Magnetic flux density, magnetic induction ....................... Tesla (T) tance. Inductance ................................................................... Henry (H) Fathom is the unit of depth of Electrical conductance ..................................................... Siemens the sea. One fathom is equal Radioactivity......................................................... Becquerel (Bq) to 6 feet. Catalytic activity ................................................................. Katal In India, National Physical Thermodynamic temperature .................................. Degree Celsius Laboratory of NewDelhi is re- Derived Units sponsible for the maintenance Area ................................................................. square metre (m2) and improvement of physical Volume ....................................................................... cubic metre standards of length and time. Speed, velocity........................................ metre per second (m·s-1) Solar day is the period be- Acceleration ................................. metre per second squared(m/s2) tween noons of two consecu- Jerk ............................................... metre per second cubed (m·s-3) tive days. Angular velocity .............................................. radian per second Momentum .................................................. Newton second (N·s) BRANCHES OF Torque, moment of force ......................................... Newton metre Wavenumber ...................................................... Reciprocal metre SCIENCE density, mass density ................. kilogram per cubic metre (kg·m-3) Actinology specific volume ....................................... cubic metre per kilogram entropy ...................................................... joule per kelvin (J·K-1) A branch of science which electric field strength ............................................... volt per metre deals with the chemical effects magnetic field strength ....................................... ampere per metre of electromagnetic radiation. molar energy .......................................................... joule per mole Aerodynamics specific energy .................................................. joule per kilogram The study of the motion and energy density ............................................. joule per cubic metre control of solid bodies (eg. air surface tension .................................................. newton per metre craft, rockets, missiles etc) in thermal conductivity..................................... watt per metre kelvin air. dynamic viscosity .................................................. pascal second Aeronautics electric charge density ............................ coulomb per cubic metre A branch of science which electric current density ............................ ampere per square metre deals with flight through air. radian ..................................................................................... rad Austro physics steridan ................................................................................. rad2 The branch of physics con- DeputyCollectorRankFile cerned with the physical prop- forces which change their which deals with effect of erties of celestial bodies and motion. motion without reference to the interaction between mat- Electronics mass or force. ter and energy with them. A branch of science dealing Optics Astronautics with the study and develop- It is the branch of physics The scientific study of travel ment of circuit involving ther- dealing with the study of light. outside the Earth’s atmo- mionic values, semi conduc- tors and other electrical com- Rheology sphere. The study of the deformation ponents like resistance, ca- Audiology and flow of matter. pacitors, inductances etc. The science of hearing Solid state Physics Electrostatics Ballistics The study of the effects as- The branch of physics which The study of path (motion) of sociated with electric charge deals with the nature and prop- projectiles. at rest. erties of matter in the solid Cosmology Fluidics state. The science of the nature, ori- The study and use of fluid Statistical Mechanics gin and history of the uni- flow through pipes in an analo- The study of the mechanical verse. gous way to the flow of elec- Crystallography properties of large assemblies tric current through circuits. The study of structure of Holography of particles or components in crystals. Science of recording three di- terms of statistics. Dynamics mensional image of an object. Tribogy The study of the behaviour of Kinematics The study of friction and lu- bodies under the action of The branch of mechanics brication. Famous scientists and invention Galileo Galilei ........ Discovered the phases of Venus, Alessandro Volta .......................... Battery (Electric) the four satellites of Jupiter Io, Europa, Kirkpatrick Macmillan .................................. Bicycle Callisto, and Ganymede Tennant ...................................... Bleaching Powder Christiaan Huygens ............................ Wave theory Edwin T. Holmes ................................ Burglar Alarm Sir Isaac Newton ............. Newton's Laws of Motion, John Harrison ..................................... Chronometer Universal gravitation, Calculus Nicolas & Jean Lumiere ................................ Cinema Benjamin Franklin ......... Discovered the two electric Wilmut ...................................... Cloning, (Mammal) charges, 'positive' and 'negative'. Rudolf Diesel .................................... Diesel Engine James Watt ........... Modern condenser steam engine Thomas Alva Edison ........................... Electric Lamp Michael Faraday ............ Electro magnetic induction Henry W. Seely ................................... Electric Iron Sir Chandrasekhara Raman ..... Scattering of light and J.J.Thomson. ............................................ Electron found the Raman effect Lewis E. Waterman ............................. Fountain Pen Nikola Tesla ............................... Alternating current Thomas Alva Edison ........................... Gramophone Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit .................. Determined the Denis Gason .......................................... Holograph temperature scale called Fahrenheit scale Edward Teller ................................. Hydrogen Bomb Christian Doppler ............................. Doppler effect Sir Frank Whittle .................................... Jet Engine James Chadwick ......................................... neutron Theodore Maiman ......................................... Laser J. Robert Oppenheimer ......................... Atom Bomb Elisha G. Otis ................................ Lift (Mechanical) Dalton ............................................. Atomic Theory Benjamin Franklin ..................... Lighting Conductor Carrier .......................................... Air Conditioning John Logie Baird .................. Mechanical Television Evangelista Torricelli ............................... Barometer Rutherford .................................................. Proton- DeputyCollectorRankFile BIOLOGY Father of Biology : Aristotle. Father of Important Branches Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of Aristotle ............................................. Father of Natures History/ life and living organisms, including their structure, Father of Biology function, growth, origin, Alexander Fleming ....................................... Father of Antibiotics evolution, distribution, and Carolus Linnaeus .......................................... Father of Taxonomy taxonomy. The term ‘ Biology’ is coined Edward Jenner ........................................... Father of Immunology by a French naturalist Jean Louis Pasteur .......................................... Father of Microbiology Lamarck. Rudolph Virchow .......................................... Father of Pathology Fundamental axioms of modern Robert Hook ................................................ Father of Sightology biology: 1. Cells are the basic unit of Robert Koch ............................................. Father of Bacteriology life William Harvey .................................. Father of Blood Circulation 2. New species and inherited W.M.Stanley ................................................... Father of Virology traits are the product of Ivan Pavlov ..................................... Father of Conditioned Reflex evolution 3. Genes are the basic unit of Ernst Von Baer .............................. Father of Modern Embryology heredity 4. An organism will regulate Human cells have 23 pairs definite membrane bound its internal environment to (46number) of chromosomes. nucleus Eg : Bacteria, Blue - maintain a stable and The cell with longest life span green algae. In eukaryotes, constant condition in our body is Nerve Cells there is a nucleus with definite 5. Living organisms consume The average size of the cell is double membrane. and transform energy. Plasma membranes are 3-30 microns (1 micron = 1/1000 composed of phospholipids The CELL mm). and protein. 1. Cell wall - found only in plant Cell is the smallest and cells. It consists of non-living Cytosol - it is the soluble fundamental unit of life. substances. material in embryonic cell in The smallest cell size is of a eg: lignin, pectin, cellulose etc. which various organelles are bacteria. 2. Cell membranes (plasmale- embedded. The largest cell is of an ostrich mma) 3. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) egg. It is the outer membrane of the A network of tubes or channels The largest human cell is the cytoplasm found both in of membrane in the cytoplasm ovum. (.2mm) animals and plants. It is made which helps in protein Nerve cell(neuron) is the of protein. synthesis and conduction of longest cell. In prokaryotes, there is no materials. DNA & RNA 11. Nucleus: The nucleus controls all cell activities and enclose DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid )and RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) are the nucleoplasm. Nucleus is two different nucleic acids found in the cells of every living organ- responsible for transfer of ism. Both have significant roles to play in cell biology. heredity characteristics. DNA is found mainly in the nucleus of the cell, while RNA is found 12. Centrosome: A rather dense mainly in the cytoplasm of the cell. DNA contains the genetic codes to make RNA and the RNA in turn area of protoplasm, lies close then contains the codes for the primary sequence of amino acids to nucleus. to make proteins. Plant cell is different from Within the cell structure, DNA is organized into structures called animal cell as it contains cell chromosomes, which are duplicated during cell division. These wall surrounding plasma chromosomes would then release the genetic codes that will be membrane and chloroplasts transcribed and carried by the RNA to the ribosome. The ribosome and devoid of centrioles which will then synthesize new proteins that will help the body grow. is seen only in animal cells. Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) provides energy for all double- membrane bound kinds of activities of a cell. 4. Ribosomes: Externally small, organelle. The inner membrane ATP is called the ‘universal dense, granular, spherical is thrown into folds called cristae to increase the surface biological energy currency'. bodies found in free state in ATP synthesis takes place in the cytoplasm, composed of area. 8. Peroxisomes and glyoxysomes mitochondrion. RNA and proteins. They help are known as microbodies. Energy is stored in the mito- in synthesis of proteins. They are enzyme bags. chondria as ATP molecules. Rough endoplasmic reticulum 9. Lysosomes are known as The physical basis of life is is the normal ‘ER’ with “suicide bags”, as they 'protoplasm'. ribosomes attached to it. contain hydrolysing enzymes. Chromosome is made up of Nucleus contains nucleoli and Occasionally they digest the DNA & Proteins. nucleoli are the centres of the whole cell or part of it. Chromosomes, other than the synthesis of ribosomal RNA. 10. Plastids: Small bodies found sex chromosomes, are called 5. Golgi bodies: Bag like in the cells of higher plants. autosomes. structures formed of They are of many types. membranes. Their functions The ribosomes are chiefly Chloroplasts : are the centres concerned with the synthesis include secretion of various of photosynthetic activity. It is substances. of protein. found only in photosynthetic 6. Vacuole: A fluid filled sac plant cell. Chloroplast is a Types of cells within a cell. The watery fluid green plastid. enclosed in the vacuole is Prokaryotes: Prokaryotes lack Chloroplasts have double a nucleus (though they do called ‘Cell Sap’. It is slightly membrane, lamellae or acidic or neutral. Osmo- have circular DNA) and other thylakoids which absorb solar regulation is the main function membrane-bound organelles energy and pigments like 7. Mitochondria: Rod like or chlorophylls and carotenoids. (though they do contain spherical, semi solid structures ribosomes). Bacteria and i) Leucoplasts: Colourless containing DNA. They starch storing particles Archaea are two domains of synthesise A.T.P (Adenosine ii) Chromoplasts: Are prokaryotes. Tri phosphate) coloured particles which Eukaryotes: Eukaryotes, on Mitochondria is the power give colour to fruits and the other hand, have distinct house of the cell. It is also a flowers. nuclei bound by a nuclear membrane and membrane- bound organelles (mitochon Diseases caused by Bacteria dria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, Leprosy, Tetanus, Whooping Cough, Typhoid Fever, Paratyphoid rough and smooth endoplas Fever, Cholera, Plague, Tuberculosis, Meningitis, Bacterial mic reticulum, vacuoles). In Pneumonia, Diarrhoea, Diphtheria, Bacterial dysentry, Anthrax, addition, they possess Syphilis and Gonorrhoea. organized chromosomes which store genetic material. Fungal Diseases Cell Division Microorganisms live in all parts of the biosphere where there in Human Cell division is the process by is liquid water, including soil, Ringworm which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells. Cell hot springs, on the ocean floor, Tinea division is usually a small high in the atmosphere and Athelete’s foot segment of a larger cell cycle. deep inside rocks within the Madura foot Cell cycle is composed of three Earth's crust. Dhobie itch phases- interphase, mitosis, Bacteria were first observed by cytokinesis. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in Mitosis means the division of 1676. A virus is a small infectious nucleus and cytokinesis The name bacterium was agent that can replicate only means the cytoplasmic introduced much later, by inside the living cells of division. Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg organisms. Two kinds of Cell Division : in 1838. All viruses are nucleoprotein Mitosis and Meiosis. Bacteria are microscopic particles and contain either Mitosis occur in body cells, unicellular prokaryotic DNA or RNA. The genetic results in formation of two organism and lack of membrane material inside the viruses is daughter cells with equal bound nucleus and organelles. protected by a protein coat number of chromosomes. Bacteria are eventually placed called ‘capsid’. Meiosis Occurs in repro in a Kingdom Monera. Viruses lack the cellular ductive cells. It causes a Reproduction in bacteria is organisation of the living reduction in number of largely asexual by binary organism, but make use of the chromosomes in the cell. fission. cellular machinery of the host Respiration of bacteria are cell to multiply themselves. Micro Organisms aerobic and anaerobic. A complete viral particle The study of microorganisms Bacteria display a wide capable of infection is called a is called microbiology. diversity of shapes and sizes, ‘virion’. Anton van Leeuwenhoek's called morphologies. ‘Viroids’ are newly found discovered microorganisms in Bacteriophages are viruses group of pathogenic agents, 1675, using a microscope of his eating (destroying) bacteria much smaller than the viruses. own design. and were invented by The study of viruses is known Microorganisms are very d’Herelle. as virology, a sub-speciality of diverse; they include bacteria, Bacteriology is the study of microbiology. fungi, archaea, and protists; bacteria. The study of viruses is known microscopic plants (green ‘Virus’ the term is coined by as virology, a sub-speciality of algae); and animals such as M.W. Beigerinck, a Dutch microbiology. plankton and the planarian. microbiologist. L.S.D. (Lysergic acid diethy- vital for lamide) is obtained from a Photosynthesis is Pho- Smallest seeds Orchid seeds fungi, called Ergot. all ae robic life on Earth. Largest leaf Victoria regia ocess that Smallest Cell - Pleuro Pneumo- tosynthesis is a pr India's national flower Lotus oxide into nia Like Organism (PPLO). It converts carbon di Largest flower Rafflesia ds, espe- is a mycoplasma. or ga ni c compoun Smallest flower Wolffia the energy cially sugars, using Oldest living plant of the world HIV is an RNA virus. osynthesis from sunlight. Phot algae, and Pinus Smallest living thing - Virus occurs in plan ts, ria. Pho- many species of bacte Study of trees- dentrology Kingdom tosynthesis uses ca rbon diox- Largest trees in plant world - Classification asing oxy- ide and water, rele Conifers uct. Five kingdom classification was gen as a waste prod developed by R.H.Whittaker. Nitrogen Fixation means The five kingdoms are Monera, phyta (slime molds) and Eumycophyta (True fungi) conversion of atmospheric Protista, Fungi, Plants and The true fungi is characterised nitrogen into useful Animals. by a definite cellular body compounds like nitrates with Kingdom Monera composed of filaments called the help of bacteria and fungi. Monera includes prokaryotic mycelium. The individual The biological nitrogen cells. Eg : True bacteria, Fun- mycelium filaments is called fixation is done by nitrogen gus-like bacteria i.e. ‘Autono- hyphae. fixing bacteria such as my cetales’, Blue - green algae Water moulds, bread moulds, Rhizobium Nostoc and (cyanobacteriae). club fungi are examples. Azetobactor. Antibiotic drugs like strepto- Ascospores or basidiospores Plants absorb the element mycin, erythromycin etc. are are the products of sexual nitrogen in the form of nitrates. obtained from actinomycetes is reproduction in Fungi. Cyanobacteria is a blue green Kingdom Monera. algae. The Plant Kingdom The profuse amount of pollen Kingdom Protista Plants are the primary grains liberated by pine forests They are unicellular or colonial producers in nature. at the time of pollination during eukaryotes. Reproduction is Flora is the plants of a particular the months of March-April is both sexual and asexual. region and Fauna is the animals referred to as ‘Sulphur Motility is by Flagella, have of a particular region. Flora and Showers.’’ diverse nutritional habits. Eg : Fauna together constitute the Araucaria embricate, a Euglena, Dinoflagellates, plants and animals of a region. gymnosperm plant is commonly diatoms etc. The part of the earth and its known as ‘Monkey’s Puzzle’ Kingdom Fungi atmosphere that is capable of Litmus is obtained from a Multi nucleate, non- supporting living things is the lichen. photosynthetic, non- motile biosphere. Lichen is an association of organisms. Reproduction is by Biosphere is divided into fungus and algae. both asexual and sexual means. Lithosphere, Hydrosphere, Turmeric is obtained from the Two divisions - myxomyco Atmosphere etc. stem of plant. Cloves are dried flower buds of plant syzygium aromaticum. King of fruits - Mango Potato is a tuber crop. Poorman’s orange - Tomato The native place of potato is Poorman's wood - bamboo America in their environment are called Subdisciplines of botanyp production saprophytes Classification of Plant Kingdom of plant science to cro Agronomy: Application 1. Rhodophyta (Red algae): Are orts, and hornworts Bryology: Mosses, liverw or value mostly multicellular marine of plants of economic use Economic botany: Study nts plants. Their reddish colour is p between humans and pla Ethnobotany: Relationshi stu dies due to a pigment, phycoery ent and related Forestry: Forest managem thrin. plants Horticulture: Cultivated 2. Phaeophyta (Brown Algae): of lichens Lichenology: The study Are multicellular marine plants Paleobotany: Fossi l pla nts growing on rocks or attached res to sea shores. Their brownish Palynology: Pollen and spo colour is due to xanthophyll Phycology: Algae d ch em ical secondary ch emistry an pigment called fucoxanthin. Phytochemistry: Plant 3. Chlorophyta (Green Algae): proce sse s eases Are a group of bright green Phytopathology: Plant dis d tissue structure aquatic, unicellular plants. Plant anatomy: Cell an nts in the environment 4. Bryophyta: Simple, non Plant ecology: Role of pla vascular small plants grow in inheritance in plants Plant genetics: Genetic moist places. Thallus like plant ucture and life cycles Plant morphology: Str body is attached to the soil by functions of plants Plant physiology: Life nts rhizoids. ification and naming of pla Plant systematics: Class eg: Liver worts, horn worts, mosses, etc. one is Wolffia (duck weed). Vanilla, a flavouring material, is 5. Lycopodophyta (club The largest sperms among extracted from the fruit of an mosses): Multicellular plants are found in gymno- orchid ‘Vanilla Planlifolia.’ sperms. terrestrial plants with vascular Rubber is obtained from the In plants gaseous exchange tissues. latex of Hevea brasiliensis. occur through stomata. 6. Arthrophyta (Horsetails): Are The milky juice that oozes from The roots which do not grow multicellular plants with some trees like rubber is known from a main root (radicle) but vascular tissues. Arthrophyta as latex. directly from the stem are called are largely an extinct group Cotton, jute, silk, wool, etc are adventitious roots. represented by a single living natural fibres and nylon is DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) genus, the Equisetum. and RNA (Ribo Nucleic Acid) 7. Pterophyta (Ferns): Are artificial fibre. are the two kinds of nucleic Sugarcane is a type of grass. multicellular plants with acids. The fruit sugar is fructose. vascular tissues; Here seeds In a plant cell, DNA is found in Tissue culture is the method of chloroplast, mitochondria and are not produced. producing plants from minute nucleus. Gymnosperm plant fragments. Nepenthes, sundew, drosera, 8. Cycadophyta: Are multicellular The wall of the plant cell is etc. are some of the terrestrial plants with vascular made of cellulose.The cellu- insectivorous plants. tissues. The stem is large and lose cannot be digested by Insectivorous plants obtain woody, leaves are large and human alimentary canal. nitrogen from animal bodies. fern like. The largest flower in the world Organisms which obtain their eg: cycas, zamia (sago tree), is Rafflesia and the smallest food from non living material etc. 9. Conifers: Are multicellular Cultivations sine triphosphate (ATP). plants with well developed Phosphorous is important in Sericulture is rearing of silk tissues. Leaves are simple, plant bioenergetics. worms. smaller and needle like. Potassium regulates the Horticulture is the cultivation of eg: Cedrus (deodar), Taxus opening and closing of the (Yew), Pine flowers, fruits and ornamental stomata by a potassium ion 10. Angiosperms: More advanced plants. pump. flowering plants with well Pisciculture is the art of rearing Nitrogen is an essential developed vascular tissues. fishes. component of all proteins. They make up more than half Silviculture is forest planting. Apiculture means honey making. Sulphur is a structural of all known species of plants. component of some amino Flowering plants are divided Viticulture is grape cultivation. acids and vitamins, and is into two classes – Dicotyle Vermiculture is breeding of dons (Dicots), Monocotyle essential in the manufacturing worms useful to farmers. dons (monocots). of chloroplasts. Floriculture is cultivation of Calcium regulates transport of Other Classifications flowering plants. other nutrients into the plant Terrestrial: Plants which Arboriculture means cultivation and is also involved in the grow in soil. of tree and vegetables. activation of certain plant Hydrophytes: grow in water. enzymes. Calcium deficiency Epiphytes: which perch on results in stunting. other plants but do not take necessary for growth. Magnesium is an important nourishment from them. There are 17 essential plant part of chlorophyll, a critical Xerophytes: Are adapted to nutrients. Carbon and oxygen plant pigment important in grow in a dry habitat like are absorbed from the air, while photosynthesis. deserts and can survive other nutrients including water without moisture. Micro nutrients are obtained from the soil. Iron is necessary for eg: cacti Macro Nutrients photosynthesis and is present Mesophytes: thrive under condition intermediate bet Carbon: Carbon forms the as an enzyme cofactor in ween very wet and very dry. backbone of many plants plants. Iron deficiency can The great variety of crops biomolecules, including result in interveinal chlorosis such as beans, tomatoes, pear, starches and cellulose. Carbon and necrosis. etc. belong to this category. is fixed through photo- Molybdenum is a cofactor to Parasitic: which depend on synthesis from the carbon enzymes important in building other plants for their dioxide in the air and is a part amino acids. nourishment. They lack of the carbohydrates that store Copper is important for chlorophyll and thus cannot energy in the plant. photosynthesis. make their own food. Hydrogen: Hydrogen also is eg: bacteria, fungi. necessary for building sugars Manganese is necessary for Carnivorous plants: plants and building the plant. It is building the chloroplasts. which trap insects and other obtained almost entirely from Zinc is required in a large small creatures on their sticky water. number of enzymes and plays leaves. Oxygen: Oxygen is necessary an essential role in DNA Plant Nutrition for cellular respiration. Cellular transcription. Plant nutrition is the study of respiration is the process of In higher plants, Nickel is the chemical elements that are generating energy-rich adeno- essential for activation of urease, an enzyme involved from the base of the stem forming in response to a touch or with nitrogen metabolism that the fibrous root system. shock stimulus. is required to process urea. Stem: Stem and leaves constitute Living medium of plants Chlorine is necessary for the shoot system. Habitat: The normal locality osmosis and ionic balance; it Plant Movements inhabited by a plant or animal, also plays a role in photo- Two types of movements are particularly in relation to the synthesis. noted in plants. effect of its environmental Tissues 1.Growth movements factors. 1. Parenchyma : thin - walled, (irreversible) (2) Turgor World habitat day - Ist polyhedral cells with living movements (reversible). Monday of October. protoplasm, metabolically most Plants exhibits movements in The vegetation of deserts is active. response to external stimulus called xerophytes. eg: Opuntia. 2. Collenchyma : Cell wall is made like touchings, light, A hydrophyte is an aquatic up of thin and thick portions gravitation, water etc. plant. with thickening in the corners. Chemical stimulus induced Plants which grow in saline Found below the epidermis growth is called chemotro- water are called Halophytes. (stem skin). pism. Plants growing well in full 3. Sclerenchyma: highly Bending of stem towards light sunlight are called Helio- thickened cell walls. So it is the is due to phototropism. phytes. primary strengthening tissue Plants which grow luxuriantly Phototropism means move- found in mature plants. No in rainy season and shed all ments of P plan ts towards living protoplasm, some of leaves in summer are called light. these are highly elongated Tropophytes. The movement of plant or- called fibres. Oxylophytes : plants growing gans in response to the force on acidic soil. Complex Tissues of gravity is called as geotro- Lithophytes: plants growing Xylem - primarily a conducting pism. on rocks. tissue meant for transport of The movement of an organ Plants growing in marsh are water and mineral elements. induced by contact with a for- called Helophytes. Highly thickened walls. eign body is called Hydroponics: is a method of Phloem - meant for the haptotropism. cultivating plants without transport of food material from Water stimulus induced using soil but by using nutrient the leaves where it is growth movements are called solution. synthesized to the storage or hydrotropism. consumption organs. The curvature movements Growth Regulators of Epidermis - outermost layer of of plant parts in response to Plants the plant body and is primarily the stimulus of contact are Certain chemical substances protective in nature. termed as thigmotropism. regulate the growth and dif- Secretory Tissues : Examples Growth movements in re- ferentiation of plants. These of secretions are resin, sponse to the stimulus of heat substances are called plant mucilage, essential oils, gums, or cold is called thermotro- growth regulators or phyto pism. hormones. nectar, etc. Alternation of day and night The auxins induce cell elon- Morphology of the Plant causes movements of plants gation and root initiation. Root: Root develops from the called nyctinastic movements. Indol - 3 Acetic Acid (IAA) is ‘radicle; forming tap root system or Seismonastic movements are an important Auxin. Stem elongation and dor- of light, only blue, red and Pollination between two flow- mancy breaking are induced some violet light are absorbed. ers of one plant gytanogamy by gibberillins. During day time plants take Pollination by insects is called Dormancy is the period in in carbondioxide and give out Entomophily. which seeds remains inactive. oxygen. Pollination by birds is called The hormone which helps in GUTTATION: In some plants, Ornithophily. flowering of plants - florigen. water oozes through certain Pollination by animals is called Cytokinins help to induce cell pores in the form of liquid, that Zoophily. division and cell elongation. pores remain permanently open (Cytokinins are largely and this phenomenon is called Pollination by wind is called Anemophily. present in coconut water.) guttation. The plant hormone that con- OSMOSIS :The process by The pollen grains in the trols fruit ripening is ethylene. which water diffuses through plants are produced in anther. Unripe fruits can be made to a semi-permeable membrane The chief pollinators of our ripe before proper time if they from a region of higher concen- agrihorticulture crops are are kept in ethylene atmo- tration of a solution to a region bees. sphere. of lower concentration of a so- Wind borne pollen grains Abscisic acid cures ageing lution. cause pollen allergy. TRANSPIRATION: The In plants like castor and and abscission of leaves. leaves excretes water through moringa seed dispersal takes It inhibits germination of stomata by transpiration pro- place through wind. seeds. In Vallisnaria pollination Seed dormancy is due to ab- cess. occurs by water. scisic acid. The required ingredient for Seed dispersal in coconut photosynthesis in plant is All occurs through water. Plant Processes the above For the process of respiration The Kingdom of PHOTOSYNTHESIS is the in plants oxygen is necessary process by which green Xylem is responsible for the Animals plants manufacture food in conduction of water in plants the form of carbohydrates by The animal with the longest Plants get water through the life span on the land is el- using water, CO2 and sunlight. roots because of capillarity During Photosynthesis plants ephant, while the animal hav- Phloem carries prepared food use carbon dioxide and give ing the longest life span, in from leaves to all parts of out oxygen. plant. general, is turtles and tor- Oxygen balance in the atmo- toises. sphere is maintained through Seed Dispersal and Blue Whale is the biggest and the process of Photosynthe- Pollination the heaviest mammal. sis. The smallest ape is Gibbon. The percentage of light en- Pollination means transfer of pollen grains from the anther Chimpanzee is the most intel- ergy fixed in photosynthesis to the stigma of the same plant ligent ape. is generally around 1% or a different plant. Elephant tusks are enlarged Photosynthesis takes place faster in red light Pollination by water - incisors. Plant pigments do not absorb Hydrophily Fishes respire through gills. all the wavelengths of visible Pollination by Bat - The vertebrate which has a two light. Out of the seven colours Chiropterophily chambered heart is fish. Coprophytes are the animals which derives their food from Largest ape ............................................................. Gorilla faecal matters. Tallest animal .......................................................... Giraffe The organism which has the Largest reptile .................................................... Crocodile maximum number of ribs is the Lowest recorded temperature for a human snake. The largest snake is being to survive ..................................................... 20.30 C the anaconda found in the Fastest Animal ......................... Cheetah (speed 60-63 km/hr) Amazon region in South Smallest bird ................................................ Humming bird America. Largest bird ...................................... North African Ostrich Longest poisonous snake ................................ King Cobra Kangaroo is a nocturnal her- Largest mammal (animal) ............. Blue Whale (wt. 209 tones) bivore. Largest land animal ................. African Elephant (wt. 7 tones) Zebras are jockingly called Largest teeth ........................ Elephant tusks (upper incisors) ''the ponies in pygamas.'' The main chemical content of egg shell is calcium carbo- is called metamorphosis nate. feeding on blood. Frugivores Cobra venom affects the ner- Hibernation is the period of vous system and viper venom are the animals feeding on long sleep for animals in cold the blood circulatory system. fruits. weather when there is no food A baby cockroach is called The Kangaroo rat never drinks available. During this period nymph. water in its entire life.- animals go underground and Ostrich, Rhea, Kiwi and Pen- Organism is called the ‘slip- their metabolic activity be- guin-all are flightless birds. per animal cule’ paramecium comes very low and hence they do not need to eat or Dodo (a flightless pigeon) The organism which performs drink during this period. which appeared in Mauritius The animal found in the is now extinct. The animal classes that are advertisement board of forest The smallest flightless bird is vertebrates include department with the heading kiwi, while the smallest flying Jawless fish “I have no medicinal value” is bird is the Bee humming bird Armored fish black ape. of Cuba. Cartilaginous fish Sanguivores are the animals Growth of tadpole into a frog Bony fish Amphibians Reptiles Birds The Classification of animals Mammals Animal Kingdom can be split up into main groups, vertebrates Invertebrates include (with a backbone) and invertebrates (without a backbone). around Sponges 800,000 species have been identified in the Animal Kingdom — Jellyfish, hydras, most of them in the Arthropod phylum. sea anemones, corals Scientists classify each organism according to its: Kingdom, Comb jellies Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species. Flatworms Molluscs The science of classifying organisms is called taxonomy. Arthropods Biologists classify living things into two kingdoms, the Plant Segmented worms Kingdom and the Animal Kingdom. Echinoderms the sex transformation in Physiology and Health sources are - butter, ghee, oils, crabs - Sacculina. ground nuts, almonds, etc. The population of reptiles is I. Carbohydrates One gram of fat yields 9.3 maximum on earth. Organic compounds contai- calories of energy. Saurology is the study of ning carbon, hydrogen and IV. Vitamins lizards. oxygen which constitute Vitamin A, D, E, K are fat Ants go in a line by the sugars (Starch, cellulose, soluble whereas vitamin B secretion of trail pheromones. glucose etc) and supply complex and C are water calories for body activity. The tallest living bird is soluble. The general formula of Ostrich. Rich sources of vitamin A are carbohydrate molecule is Silver fish is not a fish but a leafy vegetables, animal fat, Cn (H2O)n. wingless insect. The sources of carbohydrates carrot, spinach, milk etc. are rice, wheat, honey, sugar, Severe deficiency of Vitamin A Six Basic Animal potato, carrot. Deficiency of results in Xerophthalmia and carbohydrates causes weight Nightblindness. Groups loss and weakness. Rich sources of vitamin B are Amphibians (Class Amphibia) Polyhydroxy aldehyde or cereals, eggs, fruits, liver, are one of the six basic groups ketones are carbohydrates. pulses. Based on the number of sugar Vitamin C is found in oranges, of animals. units they can be classified lemon, vegetables and milk. Amphibians include frogs, Milk, egg, liver etc are rich into, Monosaccharides, Oligo- toads, caecilians, newts and saccharides and Polysaccha- sources of vitamin E. salamanders. rides. Vitamin E is considered both Birds (Class Aves). Birds, best as a vitamin and hormone. II. Proteins known for their ability to fly, The source of vitamin K is are unmatched in their com- Proteins are highly complex green leafy vegetables and nitrogenous compound found mand of the skies. fishes, pea etc. in all living organisms. Proteins Invertebrates are one of the six Vitamin K is essential for blood are hydrolysed in the body to basic groups of animals. Katy- coagulation. produce amino acids and are dids, spiders, sea squirts, oc- If milk is exposed to sunlight essential for growth and repair topuses, earthworms, starfish, for a long time, vitamin B2 will of the body tissues. They also beetles, hydras, dragonflies, be lost. provide energy when calories sponges, corals, snails, and Excessive intake of polished are deficient. jellyfish are a handful of the rice causes deficiency of B1 Sources: Milk, fish, meat, eggs, invertebrates alive today. (Thiamine). nuts, dal. Cow milk is a rich source of Fish are cold-blooded, aquatic Soyabean seeds possess vitamin A. animals that have scales, gills highest percentage of proteins Vitamin D, can also be and fins. (30-35%). synthesised in our body with Mammals (Class Mammalia) Prolonged protein deficiency the help of sun light. are one of the six basic groups cause severe under Shark liver oil and cod liver oil of animals. nourishment - a serious are rich sources of vitamin D. condition Kwashiorker is Reptiles (Class Reptilia) are Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamine) resulted mostly in children. cold-blooded vertebrates that is a cobalt containing vitamin. diverged from ancestral am- III. Fats Even though the amounts of phibians about 340 million Fats are insolube in water but vitamins required are small years ago. soluble in fat solvents. Major compared to other nutrients, it Source and Role of Principal Vitamins Vi ta mi n Best Food Source Functio n Deficiency disease Retinal : Carrots, yellow and green veg- Synthesis of the visual purple of Xerophthalmia: drying of (Vitamin A) (Fat soluble) etables. Other sources include the retinal rods. cornea and ulceration. Night butter, milk, fish-liver oil. Maintains general health anc blindness: Inability to see in vigour of epithelial cells. Hence the dark. Keratinization of essential for good skin and hair. epithelium: Dry skin and hair. Thiamine Whole grains, yeast, liver, egg, Carbohydrate metabolism. En- Beri-beri: Partial paralysis of (Vitamin B) (Water soluble) pork, nuts. sures normal functioning of the skeletal muscles and digestive central nervous system. disturbances. Ribofla win Cereals, legumes, milk, egg, Essential carbohydrate and pro- Characterised by corneal ulcer- (Vitamin B) (Water soluble) liver, kidney, yeast. tein metabolism especially in the ation and cracking of skin (es- cells of the eye, skin, intestines, pecially around the lips). and blood. Niac in Lean meat, liver, milk, eggs, Inhibits production of choles- Pellagra: Characterised by (Water soluble) nuts, whole grains. terol and helps in the breakdown dermatitis (skin inflammation), of fats, proteins and carbohy- diarrhoea and dementia (loss of drates. intellectual function). Pyrido xine Salmon, yeast, yogurt, corn, Essential for amino-acid metabo- Epileptiform seizures observed (Vitamin B 6) (Water soluble) spinach, cheese, cereals & le- lism. Assists production of anti- in children. Symptoms include gumes. Also synthesised by in- bodies. dermatitis of eyes, nose and testinal bacteria. mouth; retarded growth. Folic Acid (Water soluble) Yeast, liver, green leafy veg- Helps normal production of Macrocytic anaemia: Produc- etables. Synthesized by intesti- blood cells. Identified in chro- tion of abnormally large red nal bacterial also. mosomes an important repro- blood cells. ductive factor. Cyano c o b alamine Liver, kidney, meat, eggs, milk Necessary for red blood cells for- 1. Pernicious anaemia. (Vitamin B 12 ) (Water soluble) and cheese. (Note: mation and normal functioning 2. Neuro-psychiatric abnor- Absent in vegetables, only vi- of nervous system. malities: Memory loss, mood tamin containing cobalt.) and personality changes. Ascorbic acid Citrus fruits, tomatoes, cabbage. Influences permeability of cap- Scurvy: Swollen gums, teeth (Vitamin C) (Water soluble) illary walls. Develops immunity loss, bleeding gums. against diseases. Forms collagen. Fish liver oils, egg yolk, milk, Controls calcium and phospho- Calc ife r o l butter. Also synthesized in the rus metabolism which contribute Rickets (in infants) Bones be- (Vitamin D) (Fat soluble) human body by the skin under to formation of teeth and bones. come soft (deformed). the influence of sunlight. Oesteomalacia (demineral- ization of bones) Tocopherol Wheat germ, fresh nuts, seed As anti-oxidant which protects Deficiency not reported in hu- (Vitamin E) (Fat soluble) oils, green leafy vegetables. lipids of cells membranes against mans Causes sterility in rats. oxygen damage. Phyl lo quin o ne s Liver, spinach, cauliflower, Assists in the production of pro- Haemorrhage: Subcutaneous (Vitamin K) (Fat soluble) green tomatoes. thrombin and other factors that and intramuscular bleedings due ensure normal clotting of blood. to delayed clotting time. Food Source Heterotrophic : Organism is Vitamin A (Retinol) Cod liver oil, carrots unable to prepare its own food. Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Rice bran Holozoic : Mode of nutrition Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) Citrus, most fresh foods characteristic of animals Vitamin D (Calciferol) Cod liver oil whereby simple substances Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) Meat, eggs are obtained from complex food Vitamin E (Tocopherol) Wheat germ oil, unrefined veg.oils substances. Vitamin B12 (Cobalamins) Liver, eggs, animal products Saprophytic : Absorbs Vitamin K (Phylloquinone/ nourishment from dead or phytol naphthoquinone) Leafy green vegetables decaying organic matter. Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid) Meats, whole grains, in many foods Parasitic : Derives nutrition Vitamin B7 (Biotin) Meats, dairy products, eggs from living host without Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) Meat, dairy products. helping it in any way. Vitamin B3 (Niacin) Meat, eggs, grains Homodont dendition : Vitamin B9 (Folic acid) Leafy green vegetables Consists of only one type of teeth. They are used only for is very necessary. Otherwise Overdose of water soluble catching prey, as homodont several deficiency diseases are vitamin does not cause any does not chew their food. Eg : caused in the body. harm but accumulation of fat Snakes. The name ‘vitamin’ is coined soluble vitamin can be toxic. It Heterodont dendition : More by J.Funk (1912) can lead to hypervitaminosis. than one type of teeth, Milk is a rich source of all Vitamin A accumulate in liver differing in function, shape vitamins except vitaminC. while vitamin D promotes high and function. Eg : Human Vitamin D(in skin) and vitamin Ca+ absorption which damage K (in liver) can be synthesized the kidney where it is Human Body by our body. deposited. Deficiency of protein , Digestive System Vitamin A Deficiency causes carbohydrates and fats results Night Blindness and The process of converting in protein - energy - Keratomalacia. food into energy giving sub- malnutrition. stances is carried out by the Protein deficiency causes Deficiency of Vitamin B 1 (Thiamine) causes Beri Beri. digestive system. Kwashiorkor- skin cracks and Vitamin B3 (Niacin) deficiency The digestive system consists become scaly, abdomen swells, hair become reddish . causes Pellagra. of the alimentary canal (buccal Vitamin B6 Deficiency- Anemia. cavity, oesophagus, stomach, Marasmus child show all small intestine, large intestine above symptoms besides Vitamin B5 deficiency - Paresthesia ending in the rectum and anus) wasting of muscles. and the associated glands. Diseases restricted to given Vitamin C deficiency - Scurvy Alimentary canal is a long tube region and arising from its Vitamin D deficiency - Rickets specific environment condition which is 6-9 metres long and are called endemic diseases. Eg Modes of Nutrition starts from mouth and ends at : Goiter in sub - Himalayan Autotrophic : Ability of anus. region. organism to prepare its own The parts of the alimentary Pellagra is common amongst food. canal are Mouth , Pharynx, people living on a maize diet, Holophytic : Characteristic of Oesophagus, Stomach, Small because maize interferes with plants where by they prepare intestine, Large intestine. the absorption of niacin in complex food substances The mouth leads into a funnel body. using simple raw materials. shaped pharynx, which is the common passage for food and and secrete bile later when The exchange of O2 and CO2 air. food is present in intestine. takes place in lungs at alveoli. Pharynx lead into oesophagus The large intestine secretes no The amount of air moving in which is about 25cm long. enzyme and play only a minor and out of lungs during each The three divisions of large role in the absorption of breath is called tidal volume. intestine are Caecum, Colon nutrients. The maximum volume of air and Rectum. that can be moved in or out of Lungs the lungs is referred to as the Small intestine. It is the largest and narrow tubular part of vital capacity of the lungs. alimentary canal. It measures Eupnea –– Normal breathing about 6 meters in length. Dyspnea –painful breathing Anexia – No O2 in inspired air Small intestine, the highly Pneumonia, pleurosis, bron- coiled portion has 3 divisions chitis, silicosis and emphy- such as duodenum, jejunum sema are diseases affecting and ileum. respiratory tract. Digestion is of two types SARS (Severe Acute Respi- Intra cellular digestion : The ratory Syndrome) a lung dis- digested products pass to the ease, is caused by Corona Vi- cytoplasm across the rus. endocytotic inside membrane. Eg : Amoeba High altitude problems Extra Cellular Digestion : Cell 1. Asphyxia - Oxygen starvation The lung is the essential synthesizes one or more due to low atmospheric oxygen respiration organ in all air- enzymes for digesting specific is called asphyxia. breathing animals. type of nutrient. 2. Hypoxia - refers to a general Lungs are the respiratory The liver is the largest gland organ in higher vertebrates low level of oxygen of the body. It secretes bile, (man). availability. Physiologically it containing bile pigments and The main function of the lungs refers to a deficiency of oxygen bile organic salt. If intestine is the oxygenation of blood at the tissue level. contains no food, the bile flows and to supply oxygen to it. Tobacco smoke and exhaust to gall bladder, instead of The right lung is larger than the fumes result in carbon duodenum ; which contract left lung. monoxide poisoning. Right weight about - 620 g The binding capacity of Left weight about - 570 g carbon monoxide is 200 times Alveoli are small air sacs of than that of carbondioxide with the lungs through the walls of haemoglobin. Liver which gaseous exchange A leaf like cartilagenous flap, Stomach takes place between blood the epiglottis guards the Gall Bladder and air. opening of glottis. The organ without muscle is Sleeping in a closed room with Large lungs a burning kerosene lamp may Intestine Small Pleura protects lungs from lead to death due to lack of O2. Intestine harm. In mammals, the body cavity The CO content in the air that is partitioned into thoracic and 2 we exhale is about 8%. abdominal parts by diaphragm. Heart s World’s fir st heart transplant wa by Ch ristian d December 1967 performed on 3r Bernard. Science of A ll In di a In sti tute of Medical Dr. Venugopa l t 1994. s fir st he ar t tra nsplant on 3rd Augus performed Indi a’ a the history of Keral Th e fir st he ar t transplantation in sp ita l ust Ho Cochin Medical Tr was conducted at ce of D r. Jose un de r th e guid en . Chacko Periyapuram The cardiovascular system The deoxygenated blood (im- Arteries carry pure blood from comprises the heart, veins, pure blood) from the body the heart to the tissues. arteries and capillaries. coined by two large veins Pulmonary artery is the only Heart is the pumping organ of called Superier Venacava and artery carrying impure blood. blood vascular system. Inferior Venacava is in the Veins collect impure blood Heart length - 12 cm right auricle. from the tissues and carry it Heart width - 9 cm The oxygenated blood from to the heart. The normal heart beat is 70- the lungs is received by the Pulmonary vein is the only 72 per minute in males and heart in left auricle. vein carrying pure blood. 78-82 per minute in females. Aorta is the largest artery The largest vein in human The heart beat of a child is which carries oxygenated body is called inferior more than that of an adult. ie blood. venacava. 140/min The largest blood vessel in the The lengt h of our bl ood The circulation of blood in the body is Aorta. capillaries is about 1,00,000 body is regulated by the heart. As blood passes through cm. The human heart is on the left lungs, gases are exchanged Jarvik Heart is the artifical side beneath the left nipple. through blood vessels called pump to replace the human The pericardium protects capillaries of alveoli. Heart heart developed by Robert K. heart from harm. beat rate in embryo (Foetus) 1 Jarvik. The average weight of the minute = 200. Heart beat rate John H. Gibbon (USA) built heart is about 340 gm in men in new born baby 1 minute = the first successful heart-lung and 225 gm in women. 140 times. machine. The human heart has four Normal pulse rate of healthy A pacemaker is used to stimu- chambers, a pair of auricles adult human is 72 per minute. late the heart muscles. and a pair of ventricles. Normal BP is 120/80 mmHg. Except heart all other organs The human heart consists of The science dealing with the of our body are found in pairs. four chambers and in fish the study of the heart and its dis- The organ which is not af- heart consists of two cham- eases is known as cardiology. fected by tumour is heart. bers. In those of amphibians ECG (Electro Cardio Gram) Pain in heart musles -- Angina there are 3 chambers. Heart of It is the photographic record pectoris. reptiles is incompletely di- of electric variations that oc- The circulation of blood in the vided into 4 chambers (Croco- cur during contraction of body is regulated by the heart. dile has 4 chambered heart). muscles of heart. The credit of discovering the Mammals and birds also have ECG was invented by Wilhelm circulatory system goes to four chambered hearts. Einthoven. William Harvey. The total length of our blood Constituents of the Albumin, globulin and fi- vessels is about one lakh human body brinogen are the plasma pro- kilometre. In a normal man weighing 60 kg teins. Heart disease Constituent Weight Percent Fibrinogen is concerned with of atoms Coagulation of blood. Coronary heart disease refers The blood cells are of three Oxygen 38.8 kg 25.5 % to the failure of the coronary types - Red blood cells (Eryth- Carbon 10.9 kg 9.5 % circulation to supply adequate rocytes), White blood cells Hydrogen 6.0 kg 63 % circulation to cardiac muscle Nitrogen 1.9 kg 1.4 % (leucocytes) and the Platelets and surrounding tissue. Calcium 1.2 kg 0.3 % (Thrombocytes). Coronary artery disease is a Phosphorus 0.6 kg .2 % Red Blood Corpuscles (RBC ) disease of the artery caused by Potassium 0.2 kg 0.06 % contain haemoglobin which the accumulation of gives blood its red colour. atheromatous plaques within Camel is the only mammal hav- the walls of the arteries that ing nucleus in the RBC. supply the myocardium. blood pressure, especially The abnormal rise in total Angina pectoris (chest pain) localised high blood pressure. count of RBC is called poly- and myocardial infarction Inflammatory heart disease cythemia. (heart attack) are symptoms of involves inflammation of the Erythrocytes participate in and conditions caused by heart muscle and/or the tissue transporting oxygen from coronary heart disease. surrounding it. lungs to tissues. Cardiomyopathy is the Valvular heart disease is CO2 is carried in both plasma deterioration of the function of disease process that affects and RBC as bicarbonates. the myocardium (i.e., the actual one or more valves of the heart. heart muscle) for any reason. RBCs are produced in the bone People with cardiomyopathy marrow. Blood Spleen & liver destroy the are often at risk of arrhythmia The blood serves to transport dead RBCs in human body. and/or sudden cardiac death. Cardiovascular disease is any and distribute materials within Spleen is known as graveyard of a number of specific the body. of RBC. diseases that affect the heart Distribution of enzymes is not Spleen serves as a Blood itself and/or the blood vessel a function of blood. Bank (Reservoir of blood) in system, especially the veins Blood circulation was discov- the body. and arteries leading to and ered by William Harvey. The life span of RBC is about from the heart. Since blood is found outside 120 days. Heart failure also called the cells it is called as extra Haemoglobin consists of iron congestive heart failure (or cellular fluid (ECF). containing pigment haem and CHF), and congestive cardiac The pH value of human blood a protein globin. failure (CCF), is a condition that is nearly 7.5. Haemoglobin, the respiratory can result from any structural The blood cholesterol level in pigment gives red colour to or functional cardiac disorder 100ml of blood in a normal RBC. that impairs the ability of the person varies between 150- heart to fill with or pump a 250 mg Haemoglobin helps in trans- sufficient amount of blood The liquid part of the blood portation of oxygen. throughout the body. viz. the plasma constitutes Normal adult human male has Hypertensive heart disease is 55% of the total blood vol- 14 grams of haemoglobin in heart disease caused by high ume. 100 millilitre of blood. Functions of Blood Blood pressure • Supply of oxygen to tissues (bound to hemoglobin, which is Blood pressure (BP) is the pres- carried in red cells) sure exerted by circulating • Supply of nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, and fatty blood upon the walls of blood acids (dissolved in the blood or bound to plasma proteins vessels, and is one of the prin- (e.g., blood lipids)) cipal vital signs. During each • Removal of waste such as carbon dioxide, urea, and lactic acid heartbeat, BP varies between a maximum (systolic) and a mini- • Immunological functions, including circulation of white blood mum (diastolic) pressure. cells, and detection of foreign material by antibodies • Coagulation, which is one part of the body's self-repair mecha- nism (the act of blood clotting when one gets cut to stop the The condition when haemo- bleeding) globin content of the blood • Messenger functions, including the transport of hormones falls below normal is termed and the signaling of tissue damage anaemia. • Regulation of body pH The disease resistant con- stituent of blood is W.B.C. • Regulation of core body temperature which produces antibodies. • Hydraulic functions Antigens are capable of stimulating the formation of Clotting of blood in blood ves- High blood pressure (Hyper- antibodies. sels is called thrombosis. tension) is known as the si- WBC-White Blood Cor- The coagulation of blood in lent killer. puscles (Leucocytes) defend vessels is prevented during Normal blood sugar level : 80- our body from disease caus- normal condition by heparin. 100mg/100ml of blood ing microorganisms. Haemophilia is a hereditary Normal cholesterol 50-180 mg The number of luekocytes per bleeding disease due to inad- /100ml of plasma. micro litre of blood is called equate clotting of the blood. the total count of WBC. It is Haemophilia sometimes re- The largest leucocyte - normally 5000 in humans. ferred to as bleeder’s disease Monocytes. Leukaemia, also called blood or 'christmas disease.' The smallest leucocyte - cancer, is caused by the over A healthy person has 5-6 litres lymphocytes. production of WBCs. of blood in his body. The leucocytes capable of Leucopenia is the disease At a time of blood donation producing antibodies are - caused due to decrease in the only 300 ml of blood is used. lymphocytes. white blood cells count. The normal blood pressure of The leucocytes which are The proportion of R.B.C. a healthy adult is 120/80 mm modified as scavenger cells are and W.B.C. in human body Hg. - Monocytes. 120 mm Hg is known as sys- is 600 : 1. The leucocytes that are able to tolic pressure and 80 mm Hg The life span of WBC is about is known as diastolic pres- produce the anticoagulant 5 to 21 days. sure. heparin are Basophils. Platelets or thrombocytes are other blood cells. They per- Presence of blood in urine - Haematuria. form an important role in blood Presence of haemoglobin in the urine - Haemoglobinuria. clotting. They live only for a Presence of excess urea in the blood - Uremia few hours. Presence of excess proteins in urine - Proteinuria. Plasma Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man displays the proportions of a man. About 55% of whole blood is The Vitruvian Man is a world-renowned blood plasma, a fluid that is drawing created by Leonardo da Vinci the blood's liquid medium, in the year 1487. which by itself is straw-yellow The drawing and text are some- times called the Canon of in color. Proportions . Plasma functions in transport, It is stored in the Gallerie body immunity, prevention of dell'Accademia in Venice, Italy. blood loss, retention of fluid The drawing is based on the in blood, maintenance of pH, correlations of ideal human uniform distribution of heat. proportions with geometry Hematological disorders described by the ancient Roman Anemia: Insufficient red cell architect Vitruvius mass (anemia) can be the re- sult of bleeding, blood disor- Bacterial infection of the shrink and form a hard clot to ders like thalassemia, or nutri- blood is bacteremia or sepsis. plug the opening of the blood tional deficiencies. Viral Infection is viremia. Ma- vessel to stop bleeding. After Abnormal increase in WBC laria and trypanosomiasis are clotting occurs, a straw count is known as leukemia or blood-borne parasitic infec- coloured fluid called ‘serum’ is blood cancer. tions. left. This portion of blood Leukemia is a group of can- Blood clotting retains its liquid form cers of the blood-forming tis- indefinitely. Blood platelets breakdown in sues. the vicinity of an injury and Haemophilia is a hereditary Abnormal decrease in total release an enzyme that causes bleeding disease due to count of WBC is known as formation of fibrin from inadequate clotting of the leucopenia fibrinogen. Fibrin forms a blood. Non-cancerous overproduc- tangled mass of fibres which tion of red cells (polycythemia vera) or platelets (essential Recipient Donor thrombocytosis) may be pre- malignant. Hemophilia is a genetic illness that causes dysfunction in one of the blood's clotting mechanisms. Blood is an important vector of infection. HIV, the virus, which causes AIDS, is trans- mitted through contact with blood, semen or other body secretions of an infected per- son. Hepatitis B and C are trans- mitted primarily through blood contact. Blood Groups Erythroblastosis foetalis –– body which carries pure blood caused by the Rh blood is pulmonary vein A person having blood type group. Antigen is a substance which B could safely donate blood Land Steiner and Weiner first stimulates formation of anti- to persons with blood type B found the Rh factor in Rhesus body and AB monkey. When the right ventricle in the Blood groups A, B, AB and O Normal count level RBC in human heart contracts, the were discovered by Karl Blood - 5 million/ccg Blood. blood moves to pulmonary Landsteiner. Normal count level WBC in artery O blood group can be given Blood - 5,000 to 9,000 ccg to persons of any other group. Blood. Liver : The largest gland Therefore O group is called Normal count level platelets in The liver is the largest gland universal donor. Blood - 2,50,000 to 3 lakhs. in the body. A person with group AB can Life span of RBC - 120 days receive any other group. So Life span of WBC - 5 to 21 AB is called universal days recepient. Life span of platelets - 7 days ‘A’ blood group is most com- The instrument used to mea- Liver mon among the Europeans, sure the blood pressure in Gall Bladder while ‘B’ and ‘O’ are common Human body - Sphygmoma- among the Asians and the nometer American Indians, respec- The only one vein in human tively. Bile Duct Largest blood cell in human body - Monocytes Smallest blood cell in human body - Lympho cytes Major organ systems Cardiovascular system: pumping and channeling of lymph between tissues and the blood stream, the blood to and from the body and lungs with heart, blood, lymph and the nodes and vessels that transport it. and blood vessels. Musculoskeletal system: muscles provide movement Digestive System: digestion and processing food with and a skeleton provides structural support and pro- salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, liver, gallblad- tection with bones, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons. der, pancreas, intestines, rectum, and anus. Nervous system: collecting, transferring and process- Endocannabinoid system: neuromodulatory lipids and ing information with brain, spinal cord, peripheral receptors involved in a variety of physiological pro- nerves, and nerves cesses including appetite, pain-sensation, mood, mo- Reproductive system: the sex organs; in the female; tor learning, synaptic plasticity, and memory. ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary Endocrine system: communication within the body glands, and in the male; testes, vas deferens, seminal using hormones made by endocrine glands such as vesicles, prostate, and penis. the hypothalamus, pituitary or pituitary gland, pineal Respiratory system: the organs used for breathing, body or pineal gland, thyroid, parathyroids, and the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, and dia- adrenals or adrenal glands phragm. Integumentary system: skin, hair and nails Urinary system: kidneys, ureters, bladder and ure- Immune system: the system that fights off disease; thra involved in fluid balance, electrolyte balance and composed of leukocytes, tonsils, adenoids, thymus, excretion of urine. and spleen. Vestibular system: contributes to our balance and Lymphatic system: structures involved in the transfer our sense of spatial orientation. role in Liver plays a major Bilirubin and biliverdin are pigments (bilirubin and s a mber nu metabolism and ha bile pigments. biliverdin) and inactivated body, in- of functions in the The disease which affects the products of steroid hormones, st or ag e, cl udin g gl ycog en liver is jaundice. some vitamins and many drugs. re d blood decomposition of Bleeding in liver is known as 6) Destruction of dead cells and n synthe- cells, plasma protei liver cirrhosis. bacteria by phagocytosis. tio n, and sis, hormone produc Hepatatis is the viral disease 7) Synthesises heparin - an lie below s anticoagulant, prothrombin, detoxification. It of liver which influence func- e abdomi- fibrinogen and some factors the diaphragm in th tioning of liver. the abdo- necessary for blood nal-pelvic region of Excessive alcoholic consump- le, an al- coagulation. men. It produces bi tion causes cirrhosis ich aids kaline compound wh Exessive stimulus for alcohol e ulsifi- em Kidneys and Dialysis in digestion, via th consumption is called dypso- cation of lipids. mania. Manufacturing of urea takes place in liver. It is the largest metabolic or- Excessive use of tobacco affe- gan in human body. cts the nerves while the same The liver is on the right side of alcohol affects the liver. of the stomach. Stone in gall bladder called Liver is dark brown in colour. Cholecystostatis Sleeping on left side is useful Urea is produced in the liver. The kidneys are the chief ex- because it gives maximum re- Hepatitis is the viral disease of cretory organs of vertebrates. laxation to the muscles of the liver which influence The main purpose of the kid- right side and keeps the liver functioning of liver. ney is to separate urea, min- warm and relaxed and im- The weight of liver in man is eral salts, toxins, and other proves bile secretion. about 1.5 kg. waste products from the blood. Glucose is stored in the liver The disease that result due to Urea is removed from the blood and muscles in the form of any obstruction in the bile duct by kidneys. glycogen. is Jaundice. The volume of urine produced Liver is otherwise called Excessive alcoholic consum in an adult human being for HEPAR. ption causes cirrhosis. every 24 hours is 6.5 litres. Second largest gland in hu- The high tendency to drink The functional unit of kidneys man body - Pancreas alcohol is termed as is called nephron. Exocrine and endocrine gland dipsomania. Nephritis is the inflammation - Pancreas Liver h as a great many of the kidney caused by the Heterocrine gland -Pancreas important functions other than infection of streptococci. A Normal man secrete about 1 helping in digestion. They are: Litre of Pancreatic Juice per Presence of urea in the blood 1) Regulation of carbohydrate, day. protein and lipid metabolism. is called uremia. The main function of the liver 2) Synthesis of urea for excretion. Kidneys are responsible for is to produce bile which is an 3) Removal of drugs and toxic the removal of excess water, important agent in digestion materials. The liver has salts and waste products from of fat. enzymes which can detoxify the blood in the form of urine. There is no known digestive harmful materials. Increased flow of urine is enzymes in the bile. 4) Storage of vitamins. called diuresis and substa- Bile is stored in the gall blad- 5) Liver is the principal organ for nces that increase the flow of der. the excretion of cholestrol, bile urine is called diuretics. Anti Diuretic hormone (ADH) Inner pale region of each Cerebellum is known as or Vasopressin regulates the kidney is known as medulla. ‘Little brain’ of the entire amount of water excreted in Urinary bladder and ureters are urine. brain portions. lined by transitional epithelium Deficiency of ADH results in and hence are capable of being the disease diabetes insipidus considerably stretched, when Cerebral cortex is outer layer characterised by a large filled with urine. of cerebrum. It is made of grey amount of water being re- Normal urine is about 95% matter and contains many lay- moved through urine. water and 5% dissolved solids. er of nerve cells. Increased flow of urine is Presence of glucose in urine is Cerebral hemisphere is divid- called diuresis and sub- referred to as glycosuria. ed into frontal, parietal, tempo- stances that increase the flow The kidneys excrete a variety ral and occipital lobes. of urine is called diuretics. of waste products produced by Dialysis is used in the case of The surface of cerebral hemi- metabolism. These include the a patient suffering from kid- sphere shows many convolu- nitrogenous wastes urea, from ney trouble tions called Gyri separated by protein catabolism, and uric A dialysis unit is an artificial depressions called Sulci. acid, from nucleic acid kidney which performs the The Gyri increases the surface metabolism. functions of a normal kidney area of cortex to accommodate The kidneys secrete a variety outside the body. more nerve cells. of hormones, including Dysuria is called painful Uri- erythropoietin, calcitriol, and The general sensory or nation. renin. somaesthetic area in parietal The right kidney sits just be- At least one kidney must lobe perceive general low the diaphragm and poste- function properly for life to be sensation, viz pain. touch and rior to the liver, the left below maintained. temperature. the diaphragm and posterior Nephropathy refers to damage The motor area in frontal lobe to the spleen. controls voluntary movement to or disease of the kidney. An Each adult kidney weighs be- of muscles. older term for this is nephrosis. tween 125 and 170 grams in The premotor area in frontal Diabetes is the most common males and between 115 and lobe is the highest centre of cause of kidney failure, 155 grams in females. involuntary movements of accounting for more than 40 The kidney has a bean- muscles. shaped structure, each kidney percent of new cases. High blood pressure, or The visual and auditory areas has concave and convex sur- hypertension, is a major factor are in occipital lobe and are faces. in the development of kidney centres for visual and hearing Outer darker region of kidney problems in people with sensation. is named as cortex. diabetes. Association area in the frontal lobe is responsible for Some of the most common Brain association between various kidney diseases and The brain is protected by sensations and movements. conditions are: polycystic cranial bone and meninges. Memory, intelligence, and kidney disease, nephrosis, The brain is marked into judgement depends on co- lupus nephritis, diabetic forebrain, mid brain and hind ordinated and integrated nephropathy, brain. activities of different cortical rhabdomyolysis, kidney The forebrain consists of ce- centres. stones, and renal tubular rebrum, the largest part of hu- Hypothalamus : contain higher acidosis. man brain. nerve centres for temperature regulation, hunger, thirst and Brian stem consists of pons tion Scientific classifica emotional function. It secretes and medulla oblongata. It neurohormones which control controls vegetative actions. of Human Being ..... Animalia secretions of anterior pituitary Kingdom: ............ Spinal Cord .. Chordata hormones. It synthesises the Phylum: .................. Mammalia posterior pituitary hormones. The spinal cord controls reflex Class: ..................... ... Primates The medulla oblongata actions in human beings. Order: ..................... Hominidae controls the involuntary The length of the spinal cord Family: .................. is about 1 metre (3.3ft) . Homininae actions. Subfamily: ............ The spinal cord is a series of ..... Hominini Tribe: .................. The central control of 31 sections called segments. ........ Homo respiratory activity in human Genus: .................. body is exercised by medulla Each segment giving rise to a mo Sapiens Species: ............ Ho oblongata. pair of spinal nerves. Medulla oblongata has the 10 pairs originate from the smelled, the substance must be centres, for regulating the brain stem. It contain sensory, capable of entering to a gaseous working of the heart mixed and motor nerves. state to reach nostrils and it contraction of blood vessels We lose consciousness if must be water soluble to and respiratory and digestive blood flow to the brain is cut dissolve in the mucus to make movements. off for more than five seconds. contact with olfactory cells. The thermoregulatory centre There are 12 pairs of cranial of the human body is nerves and 31 pairs of spinal Taste hypothalamus. nerves in man. Taste buds are sense crayons E.E.G (Electro Encephalogram) for taste sensation. is used to record changes in SENSE ORGANS Taste buds are oval bodies the electric potential in various The organs which receive the found as some elevation in areas of brain. external and internal stimuli tongue called papillae. Biological death of a patient and convey the same to the Human beings recognise four means the death of tissues of central nervous system are basic modalities or tastes- the brain. called sense organs. sweet, sour, salty and bitter. Encephalitis is caused by They are principally perceived virus. Smell at the tip, along lateral edges, Receptors for smell occur in on upper surface of front half Disorder of brain affecting and on the back of the tongue, recognition of letters and nasal mucosa and are made up respectively. words is Dyslexia. of modified pseudo stratified Sour taste is evoked by H+ The final weight of the brain in epithelium. This epithelium is ions, produced by ionisation an adult male is 1.4kg and 1.3 known as olfactory epithelium. of acids. kg in case of a woman. Olfactory epithelium is more Sweet taste is evoked by Cerebellum is second largest extensive in dogs with an acute organic substances viz. sugar, portion of brain located at the olfactory sense. dextrin, glycerol, chloroform, base, under the cerebrum. aspartame and saccharine. This epithelium is composed of Cerebellum contains centres three types of cells - olfactory Bitter taste is evoked by for the maintenance of posture receptor cells, supporting cells quinine, morphine, caffeine, and equilibrium of body and nicotine, urea and cation of and basal cells. for the muscle tone. It also many inorganic salts like modulates and moderate Olfactory receptor cells Magnesium salts. voluntary action initiated by function as chemo receptors. Salty taste is evoked from the cerebral cortex. In order for a substance to be cations of Na+. Aspartame & saccharine are In an adult man skin covers the The eyeball has a diameter of widely used as artificial muscles of about 1.9m2 (20 2.5 cm. sweetening agents. sq.ft) and a woman has about The eyeball has 3 coatings Loss of smell reduces the 1.6m2 (17sq.ft). Outer most layer is an opaque, perception of taste also. That The outer layer of the skin is white, fibro elastic capsule is why people suffering from termed as epidermis, which has called sclera. This is continu- cold (rhinitis) often complain no nerves or blood vessels and ous with a transparent layer that they cannot taste their is continuously renewed. called Cornea (bulging white food. Inner layer, called dermis, is a part of the eye) Taste of chillies, black pepper thick layer below the epidermis The membrane that covers and hot sauces are not true which contain nerves, blood cornea is conjunctiva. sensation. It is mainly a vessels, hair follicles, In case of eye transfer only sensation of pain receptors. sebaceous gland and sweat cornea is used. Many insects such as honey glands. Middle layer is called choroid, bee, flies, butterflies and moth Colour of the skin is due to the is a highly vascular, pigmented posses chemoreceptors for presence of the pigment, layer. taste sensation at their feet. melanin, in epidermis. The main function of human Ciliary body is the thickest Some mammals like rhesus portion of vascular tissue, monkey, dogs, pig and cat skin is excretion. Sweat serves to regulate the arising from a point just behind possess taste sensation for the junction of sclera and water. body temperature. cornea. It consists of ciliary Man doesn’t possess taste Sweat glands seen in dermis layer help to eliminate excess process and ciliary muscles. buds for tasting water. heat from the body. A pigmented, muscular, Skin - Touch opaque diaphragm called, Iris, Dermatology is the branch of Skin : Touch corpuscle in the science that deals with the extend from ciliary body in skin responds to physical study of skin and its diseases. front of lens. It can be seen as sensations of pressure, heat, a black screen through the cold, contact and pain. EYE - Vision cornea and has a small central Skin is our tactile (sense of The eye (photoreceptor) is a aperture called ‘Pupil’. touch) sense organ. globular ball like organ situat- The iris has two sets of smooth It is the largest organ of the ed in a bony cavity, the orbit, muscles arranged circularly. human body. of the skull. The pupil is constricted and Facts about Human Body Largest and Longest bone in a man .......................................................................... Femur (thigh bone) Smallest muscle ..................................................................................................................... Stapedius Smallest bone .......................................................................................................... Stapes (middle-ear) Total amount of blood in body ................................................................. 5.6 litres (1/15 of body weight) Life span of RBC ..................................................................................................................... 120 days Number of RBC's ...................................................... in male 5000,000 /cu.mm /in female 45,00,000/cu.mm Number of WBC's ...................................................................................................... 5000-10000/cu.mm Life Span of WBC ..................................................................................................................... 2-5 days Heart beats ...................................................................................................................... 72 per minute Average amount of haemoglobin ..................................................................... 14-15 mg/100 ml of blood Thinnest skin ......................................................................................................... Conjunctiva (eyelid) Largest endocrine gland ................................................................................................. Thyroid gland Longest cell in body .............................................................................................................. Nerve cell Smallest cell in human body ................................................................................................... Sperm cell Largest cell in human body .......................................................................................................... Ovum dilated respectively by their of ability for vision and is called Astigmatism: Curvature of cor- construction, to reduce and Blind Spot. nea become irregular and image increase the amount of light Lateral to blind spot, there is a is not clearly formed. Remedied falling on the lens. depressed area of retina, called by cylindrical lens. In bright light the iris Fovea, which contains only Glaucoma: It is due to increase automatically shuts tighter, cones and no rods. Ability of intra ocular pressure in aqueous reducing the amount of light vision is highest in fovea. entering the pupil. chamber. Operation is needed at The anterior compartment is early stage. In front of the eye there is a filled with aqueous humour. It convex lens. The lens is supplies nutrients to lens and Trachoma: It is increased in attached to the ciliary bodies cornea having no blood Redness of eye and more secre- by suspensory ligaments. supply, maintain shape of tion of watery fluid. It is due to Retina is the inner most layer, cornea and support the lens. infection of bacteria, chlamidia sensitive and made up of many The posterior compartment is trachamastis. Due to this fol- cells and fibres. filled with transparent licles may form in conjunctiva. Retina acts like the film in gelatinous material called Xerophthalmia: It is due to de- camera. In order to form an vitreous humour, which ficiency of vitaminA. (A2). Dur- image on the retina, light must supports the lens and retina. ing this conjunctiva or cornea pass through all the media of Colour blindness is a heredi- becomes Keratinized. It may eye (cornea, aqueous humour, tary disease. Squint eye is another eye de- lead to blindness. lens, vitreous humour)and it must be brought to focus on fect which can be corrected by Strabimus: In this type eyeball the retina to form an upside an operation. remain in somewhat bent posi- down image on it. The parts of eye involved in tion which is due to long ocular The interpretation takes place eye transplantion surgery are muscles formed during develop- cornea, sclera and vitreous ment of eye. Operation is needed in the brain. humour. at early stage. Also associated The image formed on the The loss of vision during dim retina of the human eye is real with squint. light is called nightblindness. and inverted. Presbiopia: During this power Twenty-twenty means perfect Eye contain receptors called vision. of accommodation of lens de- photoreceptors viz ‘rods’ and creases due to age factor and SOME OF THE EYE DEFECTS ‘cone’ cells, which convert the defected metabolism. Also energy of specific wavelength Myopia: Also known as near known as age sightness. Can be into action potential of nerve sightness or short sightness. removed by bifocal lens. fibre. Near object is clear. Far object is Photofobia: No clear image in Nerve impulses are carried from not clear Eyeball become longer. bright light. rods and cones by bipolar Image is formed in front of Retina. Can be remedied by con- Emmetropia - Normal vision nerve cells to the ganglion cells. The axon of the ganglion cave lens. Cataract - is the condition where cells converge and leave the Hypermetropia: Also known as lens became opaque which is eye ball to form ‘optic nerve.’ long sightness or far sightness. due to defective protein metabo- The spot at the back of eye, Far object is clear, near object is lism leading to blindness. It may from where the optic nerve fibre not clear. Eye ball become short. be due to disease or old age. It leaves is covered by a zone of Image is formed behind the is remedied by replacing lens. retina free from rods and Retina. Can be remedied by con- Colour blindness: It is known cones. So this spot is devoid vex lens. as daltonism. It is the inability to distinguish between red and The ossicles transmit the Types of glands - There are two green colour. It is a sex linked (x- vibration to the inner ear, types of glands linked) genetic disorder. where they cause waves in the i. Ducted glands - exocrine Night Blindness: During this fluid called perilymph. glands, ii. Ductless glands - Perilymph is filled in the coiled, endocrine glands. Rhodopsin is not resynthesized while it is regenerated in dim tube called cochlea, in the Deficiency of Parathyroid middle ear. hormone (PTH) secreted by light. Cochlea is a tube coiled, like a parathyroid gland causes Ear - Hearing small snail shell, of 21⁄2 turns. tetany in which calcium level The ears have two main func- The sensory structures in blood decreases. tions respond to different frequency, Adrenal glands are situated i) Detection and analysis of found on basilar membrane is over the kidneys. sound. the rods or corti. Adrenal gland has two parts, ii) Maintenance of balance The internal ear is made up of Adrenal cortex and Adrenal of the body. bony labyrinth and medulla. Ear has three main regions - the membranous labyrinth. The Blood pressure is controlled outer ear, the middle ear and bony labyrinth contains a fluid by Adrenal gland the inner ear. called perilymph. Adrenal medulla produces External ear consists of pinna Endocrine Glands & two hormones- adrenalin and external auditory canal. Hormones and nor- adrenalin. Pinna is a funnel shaped Largest endocrine gland - Adrenal gland prepares the ani- cartilaginous flap. It collects Thyroid. mal to fight or flight. and directs sound waves into Thyroid gland is popularly Adrenaline hormone raises ear canal. known as Adam’s Apple. the rate of heart beat and The external canal ends at a Hormones are chemical blood pressure. delicate membranous diaphra- substances produced by The hormone secreted when a gm, called eardrum or tympanic endocrine glands (ductless man gets feared is adrenaline. membrane. glands). Deficiency of insulin leads to The middle ear is an air- filled Endocrine hormone molecules excess sugar in the blood and chamber. It communicates with are secreted (released) directly this sugar is excreted in the that of the pharynx through an into the bloodstream, whereas urine. This disease is known air filled tube called, Eusta- exocrine hormones (or as diabetes mellitus (hyper chian tube. glycaemia) ectohormones) are secreted Eustachian tube helps to directly into a duct, and, from The main function of insulin equalize air pressure on either the duct, they flow either into is to control the level of sugar side of ear drum and thus the bloodstream or from cell to in the body. allows it to vibrate freely, when cell by diffusion in a process Pituitary gland is an endo- sound waves impinge on it. known as paracrine signalling. crine gland attached to the Glands are the organs of the base of the brain. The vibrating eardrum trans- mits the vibration to the ear human body which The pituitary gland is called ossicles. Ear ossicles consists manufacture some liquid 'the master gland' in the body of the hammer (malleus), the products which are secreted because it controls all other from the cells. endocrine glands present in anvil (incus) and the strip Largest gland in our body is the human body. (stapes). The stapes is the smallest bone in the body. the liver. Water balance in the body is mes Sex chromoso mainly controlled by the se- and cretion of ADH (Anti Diuretic om es X X is pr esent in females Hormone) by hypothalamus gs sex chromos of female joins In human bein esen t in males. When X sex chromosom es XY is pr e baby (XX) Endocrine and e pr od uc t will be a femal mosomes th oduct Exocrine System X of male chro ch ro m os om e of a male, the pr female joins Y ion of a baby is The secretions which the and when X of ha t is th e sex determinat by (XY ). T endocrine glands produce, do not will be male ba man. nd en t on sex chromosome of leave the gland through a duct but depe pass directly from the cells to the Coenzymes are small organic blood stream. molecules that transport Pineal gland is another The organ in the body which endocrine gland situated in chemical groups from one accumulates iodine is thyroid brain. Pineal gland secretes enzyme to another. gland. the hormone melatonin and Insufficient iodine in the diet Muscular Tissue seratonin.Pineal gland is also results in the deficiency of the It is a contractile tissue known as ‘Biological clock’. thyroid hormone, thyroxine. consisting of very large cells. Thyroxine deficiency in body Exocrine Glands - The unit of muscle tissue is results in a disease called Ducted Glands muscle fibre, which is made of simple goitre. Exocrine glands secrete their myofilaments. Pancreas is an endocrine gland product through well defined Based on structural and that produces both an enzyme ducts. functional differences three and a hormone. Liver is an exocrine gland, types of muscles are reco- The pituitary gland is called secretes bile in stomach. gnised. Unstriated muscles, ‘the master gland’ in the body Lachrymal gland secrete tears Striated muscle and Cardiac because it controls all other in the eye. muscle. endocrine glands present in Salivary glands secrete saliva the human body. in the mouth. Reproduction Water balance in the body is Sweat glands seen on skin, Reproduction is a process mainly controlled by the secrete sweat. by which an organism pro- secretion of ADH (Anti Sweat is a mixture of sodium duces new individuals or off- Diuretic Hormone) by chloride and Urea. springs of its own species. hypothalamus. Spleen is the largest lymphatic Sexual reproduction requires The normal value of blood gland in human body. one individual of each sex. sugar is 80 to 120mg 100 ml of Enzymes Testis is the sperm producing blood. Enzymes are complex chemical organ of man. Insulin prepared outside the substances consisting, wholely The average period of human body is known as Huminsulin. or in a large part, of proteins pregnancy is 36-38 weeks - Thymus is another endocrine produced in the living cells. approximately 280 days gland situated in front of the Enzymes are proteins that Mother’s milk contain 7% of trachea. Thymus secretes a catalyze chemical reactions. lactose. juvenile hormone, Thymosin. Some enzymes are used The part of the body that Thymus gland becames fully commercially, for example, in comes out first during delivery developed by about 7 years and the synthesis of antibiotics.S - head degenerates and disappears ome household products use Identical twins are formed, after 14 years of age because of enzymes to speed up bio- when the ovum after fertiliza- the activities of the sex glands. chemical reactions tion splits into two parts. Vasectomy - Sterilization vagina, accessory genital There are 24 ribs in human process in male. glands and the mammary body. Tubectomy - Sterilization glands. The total number of ear bones process in female. Graffian follicle produce a are six. Five principal methods of hormone estrogen. In an adult human being, the asexual reproduction are: The external genital organs of number of vertebrae is 26. Neck binary fission, multiple fission, females are collectively called region of human has 7 bones. fragmentation, budding and vulva. Clitoris is the vestigeal The face of a man is made up sporulation. penis in female. of 14 bones. Important sexual hormones of Phosphate of lime forms 51% Human Reproductive System females include estrogen and of bone. In the human reproductive progesterone. The bones contain calcium process, two kinds of sex cells, An important sexual hormone phosphates upto 85% or gametes, are involved. The of males is androgen, and The smallest bone in the hu- male gamete, or sperm, and the particularly testosterone. man body is the stapes (stir- female gamete, the egg or When the male ejaculates rup) found in the middle ear. ovum, meet in the female's during intercourse, semen is Bone marrow contains the par- reproductive system to create deposited into the female's ent cells that give rise to blood a new individual. Both the male vagina. From the vagina the cells. and female reproductive sperm make their way up 'Funny Bone' is a nerve at the systems are essential for through the cervix and move back of the elbow. reproduction. through the uterus with help Cranium is the Brain box that The organs which performs from uterine contractions. If a encloses brain important functions in mature egg is in one of the Ethmoid is the bone of Nasal reproduction but neither female's fallopian tubes, a chamber produce gametes nor secrete single sperm may penetrate it, The total number of bones in sex hormones are called and fertilization, or the skull is 29. secondary sex organs. conception, occurs. Secondary sex organs include Disorders of Bone the prostate, seminal vesicles, Bones The bones of aged persons are vas deferens and penis, in Human skeleton is made of more fragile than the bones of males. In females, secondary bones and cartilages. young persons. sex organs include fallopian Largest and longest bone is The breaking of a bone is tubes, uterus, vagina and femur (thigh bone). known as fracture. mammary glands. The shortest bone in the When the person feels acute Extra-abdominal testes are the human body is stapes or pain at the joints, particularly testes of human males. stirrup bone in the middle ear. while moving the joints, is Testes is the male reproductive Human bones are made up of referred to as arthritis. organ. The sperms are produced by spermatogonia. Calcium phosphate and Cal- Osteoarthritis is commonly The male sex hormone, testo- cium carbonate. known as ‘‘wear and tear’’ sterone, is produced by Leydig The total number of bones in arthritis. cells. human skull is 29. Osteoporosis is another bone The copulatory organ in male The total number of bones in disorder common in woman is the Penis. an adult human body is 206. over 50 years, and is Female reproductive system A new born baby has 300 characterised by decreased consists of a pair of ovaries, a bones, but 94 bones fuse to- bone mass and increased pair of oviducts, the uterus, the gether as it grows. susceptibility to fractures. Teeth Important Vaccines There are 20 milk teeth in hu- Vaccine ......................................... Name of the Scientist man body. Small pox ....................................... Edward Jenner (1786) Cholera ......................................... Louis Pasteur (1880) A full set of permanent teeth Diphtheria and tetanus .................. Emil Adolf Von Belming consists of 32 teeth. and Shiba saburo kita sato. The hardest material found in TB Vaccine .................................... Leon Calmatte and human body is enamel. Camille Guerin. Milk teeth appear by the age Polio Vaccine ................................. Jonas E. Salk of 7 months, adult teeth ap- Measles Vaccine ............................ John F. Enders pear from 6th year onwards and wisdom teeth appear be- tween the ages of 17-30 years. National Research Institutes in India Fluorides are the compounds that prevent tooth decay. Central Drug Research Institute ................................. Lucknow (U.P) One of the ingredients of Cattle Breeding Research Institute .......................... Hissar (Haryana) tooth paste is calcium fluo- National Dairy Research Institute ............................ Karnal (Haryana) ride. Forest Research Institute .......................................... Dehradun (U.P) Enamel is the hardest Centre for Cellular and Molecular biology ...................... Hyderabad substance in the body. Indian Cancer Research Centre .......................................... Mumbai Skin Central Marine Research Institute ...................................... Chennai Skin is the largest organ in Central Public Health Engineering Research Institute ........... Nagpur human body. National Institute of Communicable Diseases ..... Delhi Colour of the skin is due to the presence of melanin. The main function of human of the body to maintain the skin is protection and excre- body temperature. Sweat Dermatology is the branch of tion. glands help to eliminate excess science that deals with the Perspiration is an usual way heat from body. study of skin and its diseases. Genetics Father of Modern Genetics Genetic engineering is the Rev. Gregor Mendel was the branch of Science. Augustinian priest and scientist. The Genetics is the science of theories of heredity attributed to Gregor genes, heredity, and variation Mendel, based on his work with pea plants. in living organisms. Experiments with Plant Hybrids, in which A gene is the fundamental bio- Mendel described how traits were logical unit which is transmit- inherited, has become one of the most enduring and influential ted from one generation to the publications in the history of science. next. It is the unit of heredity. Mendel’s study showed that one in four pea plants had It remains at a definite posi- purebred recessive alleles, two out of four were hybrid and one tion on a chromosome. In man out of four were purebred dominant. His experiments brought about 1,00,000 genes are forth two generalizations, the Law of Segregation and the Law known to be found in 23 pairs of Independent Assortment, which later became known as of chromosomes. Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance. Genetics deals with heredity and the laws that govern it. The number of chromosomes Rev. Gregor Mendel is the The nitrogen base Thymine in in a human cell is 46. 'Father of Modern Genetics.' DNA is replaced by Uracil in Presence of an extra chromo- Mutation is the process of RNA. some in the foetus - mongol- sudden heritable change un- RNA has sub-species m-RNA dergone in a gene due to ism. and t-RNA, which carries the change in its composition. The Bacteria which receives stored information of the DNA Mutation is a change that is genes from another species is for translation into various inherited called Transgenic bacteria. proteins. DNA (Deoxyribo nucleic acid) The genes transfer from one In protein synthesis, the ge- is the principal genetic mate- species to another species netic code is carried from the rial of all living beings. through Plasmids. DNA of the nucleus to the ri- The structure of DNA mol- The gene with Bt.Toxin is iso- bosomes of the cytoplasm by ecule was discovered by lated from Bacillus m-RNA. Watson and Crick in 1953. Thuringiensi’s Bacteria. Recombinant DNA involves DNA fingerprinting has helped to solve many myster- Bt. Cotton is the cotton plant transplanting a piece of DNA with Bt.Toxin gene. of one organism to the DNA ies and crimes. of another, which finds appli- cation in the production of In- DNA testing sis dividuals on the ba terferon and Insulin. testing is us ed fo r identification of in ed fo r pa rent al DNA has a double helical DNA profiles. It is also us r re sp ec tiv e D N A hu m an D N A of thei .9% of structure of nucleotide chains an d ra pe in ve sti gation. Although 99 of th e D N A is testing ough consisting of deoxyribose ce s ar e th e sa m e in every person, en r. Th e D N A sequen m anothe sugar and nitrogen bases- nt to di sti ng ui sh one individual fro lec Je ffr eys in differe by Sir A Adenine, Guanine, Thymine tec hn iq ue wa s fir st reported in 1984 nt in g is no w testng ge rpri and Cytosine. It stores and d. Jeffr ey ’s te ch ni que of D NA fin It is al so us ed Englan boratories. transfers hereditary informa- inals in forensic la l used to identify crim o the true biologica tion and creates its own rep- m in e pa ter ni ty or maternity, th is wh at to deter lica. a child. father or mother of ECOLOGY Charles Darwin Ecology is the scientific study He discovered a hypothesis for the origin of the relation of plants and and continuation of life on Earth. His living organisms to each other theory is also called the Theory of and their surroundings. Evolution. Charles Darwin became Ecology is closely related to famous when he hypothesized that all the disciplines of physiology, life evolved from common ancestors evolution, genetics and through evolutionary processes of behavior. natural selection. Darwin is the first of the evolutionary biologists, the Biodiversity describes all originator of the concept of natural varieties of life from genes to selection – Theory of Natural ecosystems and spans every Selection. level of biological organization. An ecosystem is the largest Charles Darwin collected a large number of specimens and concluded that the Species functional unit in ecology arose as a result of natural selection. He published his theory in his because it includes both living book On the Origin of Species (1859). "The Voyage of the Beagle" (biotic) and non-living - another important book. "In the struggle for survival, the fittest (abiotic) environments. win out at the expense of their rivals because they succeed in June 5 is considered as World adapting themselves best to their environment' - Charles Darwin. Environment Day. Ecomark is given to environment friendly products of BIS (Bureau of Indian There are six major air B.O.D gives an idea of the Standards) pollutants : carbon monoxide, amount of pollution in water. Ecological friendly tourism is sulphur oxides, nitrogen B.O.D is measured as the weight termed ecotourism. oxides, particulates, hydro (in mg) of oxygen that is con- Prof. R. Mishra is called as carbons and photochemical sumed in 1 litre of water stored ‘Father of Ecology in India’. oxidants. for 5 days in darkness at a con- The rich source of energy The mode of transfer of energy stant temperature of 200C. which never causes of food synthesised in plants Water pollution is caused by atmospheric pollution is solar through a series of organisms sewage, sullage and industrial energy. of an ecosystem with repeated effluents. The conditions under which eating and being eaten is The mass death of living an organism lives constitute its known as food chain. organisms including man in environment. A few physical The rich source of energy one night at Bhopal (1984), factors that greatly influence which never causes atmo- was due to the leakage of the environment are Light, spheric pollution is solar en- methyl isocyanate (toxic gas) Temperature, water and gases. ergy. into the air from an insecticide A biome is a unit resulting from The interlocking of many food plant managed by Union the interaction of a regional chains is called 'food web'. Carbide. climate, animal and plant life A simple sequence in which the grass grows, a cow eats the Environmental planning and substrate. The types of biome are grasslands, deserts, grass, a human eats the cow or organisation is NEERI. NEERI coniferous forests, deciduous drinks its milk, is an example of is National Environment Engi- forests, tropical forests, tundra, food chain neering Research Institute. It fresh water and marine B.O.D means Biological Oxygen is in Nagpur. environment. Demand. The estimation of First Earth Summit (1992) at Rio de Janerio (Brazil) was related Global warming to conservation of genetic re- Global Warming is the increase of the average sources of plants and animals. temperature on Earth. As the Earth is getting Second Earth Summit (2002) at hotter, disasters like hurricanes, droughts and Johannesburg (South Africa). floods are getting more frequent. It happens Petroleum, coal, fossil fuel etc when greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, are non-renewable sources. water vapor, nitrous oxide, and methane) Domestic wastes contain biode- trap heat and light from the sun in gradable pollutants. the earth’s atmosphere, which Most hazardous metal pollut- increases the temperature. ant of the automobile exhaust Over the last 100 years, the is lead. Unleaded petrol is free average air temperature near the of lead. Earth’s surface has risen by a Biomass is a renewable source little less than 1 degree Celsius or of energy. 1.3 degrees Fahrenheit. Ultra Violet rays are non- Increase of one degree Celsius makes the earth warmer now ionising radiations damaging than it has been for at least a thousand years.The top 11 warmest years to DNA. on record have all been in the last 13 years, said NASA in 2007, and the Nuclear radiations may cause first half of 2010 has already gone down in history as the hottest ever cataract, an eye disease. recorded. Strontium-90 (Sr90) causes leu- Projections from the UN climate change body the Intergovernmental kaemia (blood cancer). Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) say that global surface temperature will Radiation causes leukaemia. probably rise a further 1.1 to 6.4 degrees Celsius (2.0 to 11.5 degrees CSE – Centre for Science and Fahrenheit) during the 21st century. Environment Origin & Evolution provided proof that micro- Greenhouse Life was present on the earth organisms come only from Eff ect about 3.9 billion years ago. other micro- organism. s heat up Theories :- (iii) Cosmic origin : This notion Green house ga se e part of advocates that life could have our planet. They ar (i) Special creation : This idea e and trap originated once or several Earth's atmospher embodies that life on Earth is the sun, times in various part of galaxy warmth emitted by divine creation. . It is this in universe. thus heating Earth (ii) Spontaneous generation : ouse ef- process – the greenh According to this theory, life (iv) Terrestrial or Biogenic origin : life on the This idea holds that life arose fect – that makes originates spontaneously from . by series of sequential planet possible lifeless matter ie. abiogenesis. se ga ses chemical reactions. This is Nat ur al gr eenh ou However this idea has been put e, methane, modern concept. like carbon dioxid to rest when Louis Pasteur e have al - and nitrous oxid mosphere. Tall grass grasslands of North America ................................ Prairie ways been in the at e wor ld’s Short grass grass lands ...................................................... Plains With out th em, th mperature average surface te Plants of deserts ....................................................... Xerophytes 8 degrees would be a chilly -1 Coniferous forests ...................................... Boreal forests (Taiga) we enjoy Celsius. However, ture of 14 Trees those shed their leaves ....................................... Deciduous an average tempera Tropical forests ........................................ Evergreen Rain forests. degr ees. Tundra .......................................................................... Treeless Koppenhagen Summit The 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference, commonly known as the Copenhagen Summit, was held at the Bella Center in Copenhagen, Denmark. This was the 15th Conference of the Parties (COP 15) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the 5th Meeting of the Parties (MOP 5) to the Kyoto Protocol. The Koppenhagen Accord is a significant first step in engaging the world's largest emitters in the global effort to slash carbon emissions. The Copenhagen Accord was drafted by the US, China, India, Brazil and South Africa. Accord is not legally binding and does not commit countries to agree to a binding successor to the Kyoto Protocol, whose present round ends in 2012. l Kyoto protoco ted Nat ions The most important method of pr ot oc ol to th e Uni conversion of pollutant is toco l is a C or FCCC), T he K yoto Pro lim ate C hange (UNFCC oxidation in air. ventio n on C international Framework Con m in g. T he UNFCCC is an Sewage waste are always rich glob al w ar opted on 11 aimed at fighting Pr ot oc ol was initially ad in bacteria and organic treaty . T he upon was an environmental pa n. T he target agreed substrate. in K yo to , Ja year 2012. December 1997 5. 2% fr om 19 90 levels by the In organic nitrates and n of average reductio phosphates stimulate combining with Hb. excessive plant growth in lake. The effect of particulate matter The organochlorides in Radiation Pollution depends on the size and fate pesticides are highly persistent Nuclear fuel cycle, combustion of particles on our body. and pass through food chain. of coal, accidents in nuclear power The effect of gaseous pollutant They accumulate in fatty tissue plants, medical therapy and depends on their solubility in and affect the nervous system. diagnosis, scientific research, water. Change in colour is a very detonation of nuclear weapons in NO2 at high concentrations common effect produced by testing and war, television sets are impairs functioning of lungs by dyes, inorganic substances sources of radiation. Foeteses are accumulating water in air like chromium and iron more sensitive to radiation. Cancer spaces. compound. may be increased by ionising Polluted air cause respiratory Noise is physical form of radiation. disorders such as bronchitis, pollution. Ozone layer filters out solar emphysema and lung cancer Kyoto protocol - To reduce the ultraviolet radiation which is especially in children. emissions of Green House harmful to most animal and Fluorides destroy leaf tissues. Gases (GHGs) plant life. 90% of ozone resides Oxides of Nitrogen and Montreal Protocol - To keep in stratosphere. fluoride reduce crop yields. ozone layer intact (To reduce One chlorine atom can destroy Hydrocarbon such as CFCs) about 1,00,000 ozone ethylene causes premature Cartegena Protocol - To molecules. falling of leaf, flower bud and preserve bio diversity & Tetraethyl lead and tetramethyl curling of petals. Biosafty protocols lead are used in automobiles Smaller particles are separated Stockholm convention - To as anti- knocking agent. from harmless gases by reduce the use of POPs Lead, SO 2 , NO 2 and CO cyclone collector or (Persistent Organic Pollutants) impedes oxygen transport by electrostatic precipitator. or Dirty Dozen Evolution of Man Apes are represented by gibbons, orangutans, (together called anthropoids) as well as lemurs, chimpanzees, and gorillas. lorises and tarsiers, ( together called prosmians) ‘Homo sapiens’ appeared in either Africa or Generally they have forward directed eyes, Asia 5,00,000 years back and spread out. Today gripping hands and feet opposable thumbs and no other species is as widely distributed as big toes. They tend to have nails rather than animals. claws with gripping pads on the ends of the digits, Neanderthal specimen of man is excavated from all adaptations to the climbing mode of life. Neander Valley of Germany. The Neanderthals Ramapithecus : Extreme reduction of canines, lived 100,000 to 30,000 years ago. They were modification of the chewing teeth, to be much the typical cave humans, short with heavy stronger. Development of bipedalism :- walking brows, retreating foreheads, large jaws, a on two feet, and than an erect posture and free lumbering gait and stooped posture. They wore hands. Terrestrial living and balance of head on clothing and were good hunters. the spinal column. Terrestrial gathering economy. ‘Cro - magnon’ man bears the closest Australopithecus :- Walked erect with a curved resemblance to modern man. He was back Larger size of brain barrel like trunk with completely errect, and 6 feet tall. He belonged robust build. Meat eaters and gathers, but still to Stone Age. He is the most recent pre-historic not hunters but scavenger. man. Homo erectus : More rounded head, 5 feet in Dryopithecus, Ramapithecus, Australo height and had strong bones. Made stone tools, pithecus, and Homo erectus are prehuman started hunting ‘Domesticated’ fire. types, ranging from 20 million years to 12 million Homo Sapiens : More strengthened chewing years back. muscles more developed brain (all lobes The fossil record of humans and other primates developed). Humans, known taxonomically as is incomplete. Homo sapiens. Modern man and apes are recent products of Anatomically modern humans originated in Af- evolution and both are thought to have rica about 200,000 years ago, reaching full be- descended from a common extinct ancestral havioral modernity around 50,000 years ago. form. The view that humans evolved from apes The study of human evolution encompasses has been invalidated. many scientific disciplines, including physical Primates are members of the order of mammals anthropology, primatology, archaeology, linguis- that includes monkeys, apes and human tics and genetics. mide) is a hallucinogenic drug. Euthanasia means mercy kill- Medical Science Eldepyl is a new wonder drug ing. It was first introduced to treat Parkinson’s disease (a legally in Netherlands and in Pharmacy neurodegenerative disease). Belgium second time. Small pox was the disease Aspirin (i.e., Acetyl Salicylic Computer Axial Tomograph that led to the discovery of Acid) is commonly used as a (CAT) scan is used for photo- first antiviral vaccine. pain reliever. graphing a selected plain of Small pox is the only disease The chief ingredient of the the human body using X-rays totally eradicated in 1980 mosquito repellant cream is for diagnosing the cause of a throughout the world by vac- derived from neem plant. disease. cination. B.C.G. (Bacillus Calmette CAT Scan is also known as Tetracyclins (antibiotics) Guerine) Vaccine is adminis- CT Scan. helps to cure trachoma, an eye tered to prevent tuberculosis. disease. CAT scanner was invented by Tranquillizers are drugs to Godfrey Hounsfield. Antibiotics are the drugs calm the nervous system and which are produced by bacte- MRI-Scan means Magnetic prevent tension and worry ria and which act against other Resonance Imaging Scan. while sedatives are drugs strains of bacteria. PET Scan is Positron Emis- used to induce sleep. e.g.penicillin,streptomycin, sion Tomography scan. It is Shanvac-B is India’s first in- chloromycin. used for studying brain. digenous genetically engi- Antihistamines are the sub- neered Hepatitis - B vaccine Otoscope is an instrument stances that relieve the symp- Viagra is a tablet for stimulat- used for examining the outer toms of asthma, hay fever and ing sex potential. ear and ear drum. other allergies. Morphine works as an anal- Physiotherapy is the treat- Antipyretics are the drugs gesic drug and is classified as ment of diseases or disabili- used medically to lower body narcotics. ties by massaging and exer- temperature. An antibiotic is a substance cise. Leprosy is also known as produced by a living organ- Cancer Hansen's disease. ism, especially a bacterium or Uncontrolled growth of cell, The vaccine, triple antigen is a fungus. which can be caused by given to children to immunise Penicillin is produced from Oncogenes are cancers. them against Diphtheria, Per- fungus known as Penicillium A biopsy is done in order to tussis (whooping cough) and notatum. detect the presence of can- Tetanus. CP-20-961 is a malarial vac- cer. Quinine is an alkaloid that cine. Biopsy means examination of cures malaria. tissue cut from living body. Quinine is extracted from the Diseases and Lithotripter is the machine tree ‘Cinchona officinalis. Azidothymidine (AZT) is a Treatments used to break up kidney drug used to combat AIDS. Avian influenza virus is stones by ultra sound waves. To prevent polio, two vaccines responsible for contagious Oral Rehydration Therapy Sabin (oral) and Salk (inject- disease “Avian flu” affecting (ORT) is useful in combating able) vaccine are offered. birds. cholera, dysentery and gas- A drug that prevents infection Avian flu is due to the mutated troenteritis. and decay is called an anti- genes of H5N1 virus. In medicine, radioactive iso- septic. SARS is severe Acute topes are used as tracers for LSD (lysergic acid diethyla- Respiratory Syndrome. diagnostic purposes. Diseases and Affected Organs Contagious diseases are dis- Osteomyelitis ................................................... Vertebral column eases which spread from one Polio ...................................................... Central nervous system person to another by physi- Malaria ............................................................................... RBC cal contact. Meningitis ................................................. brain and spinal cord Infectious diseases are diseases Typhoid .................................................... Intestine, whole body caused by a specific organism Diphtheria ........................................................................ throat and spread through air, water, Bright’s disease .............................................................. kidney food, etc. Eczema ................................................................................ skin The loss of elasticity of Hepatitis ............................................................................. liver muscles results in a disease Jaundice ............................................................................. liver called Parkinson’s disease. It Tuberculosis ..................................................................... lungs was invented by an English Pneumonia ........................................................................ lungs surgeon namely James Gingivitis,pyorrhoea .......................................................... gums Parkinson. Goitre ............................................................................. thyroid Malaria is caused by Plasmo- Trachoma ........................................................................... eyes dium vivax. Arthritis ............................................................................ joints Malaria is spread by female anopheles mosquitoes and it Arsenic - 74 is used to detect Protozoans cause amoebic affects the RBC. tumours. dysentery, malaria, African Plague is spread by rat fleas. Sodium - 24 is incorporated sleeping sickness, Kala-azar Dengue fever is spread by into salt (NaCl) and used to etc.. Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. detect the presence of blood Fungi causes athelete’s foot Tuberculosis, Smallpox and clots in the circulatory system. and ringworm. Influenza are diseases that Cobalt-60 is used in treatment Haemophilia, sickle cell spreads through air. of cancer. anaemia and Huntington’s Tuberculosis is known as China is famous for the mode disease (It is a hereditary dis- 'White Plague.' of medical treatment called ease resulting in the involun- Acupuncture. Tetanus can cause lock jaw. tary movement of body parts.) Anaemia is the shortage of are congenital diseases (ie, Cholera, typhoid, dysentery haemoglobin in blood. present at birth). and diarrhoea are water borne The number one killer dis- Diphtheria is a disease of diseases. eases in the world are tuber- throat. Exophthalmic goitre is known culosis and cardiovascular as grave’s disease. D.P.T. Vaccine (Triple Vac- disease respectively. Disease causing microorgan- cine) is used to prevent diph- Pneumonia, gonorrhoea, tu- isms are called pathogens. theria, pertusis or whooping berculosis, tetanus (or lock- cough and tetanus. The virus which attack bacteria jaw), botulism, syphilis, ty- Rubeola is the medical name is called bacteriophage. phoid, cholera, leprosy, plague, whooping cough etc of the disease measles. Arthritis and rheumatism af- are bacterial diseases. Elephantiasis is caused by the fect the joints. Chickenpox, rubeola (German nematoda ‘Wuchereria Hydrophobia is a disease measles), measles, mumps, in- bancrofti’. caused by the bite of a mad fluenza, common cold, AIDS, The vector of the disease fi- dog. It is commonly known as hepatitis, polio and rabies are lariasis (elephantiasis) is culex rabies. It can be prevented by viral diseases. mosquito. injections discovered by Louis Pasteur. Injections are known Common Drugs as ARV ( Anti-Rabies Venom). Anaesthetics Drugs that block sensory nerves and make a patient Rabies is caused by a virus, fully unconscious to prevent him from feeling pain. and it affects the nerve cells Analgesics Drugs used to prevent or relieve pain like aspirin. of the brain. Antibiotics Drugs used to prevent growth of bacteria or other Alzheimer’s disease Amyloid germs. beta (A ) deposits are the Antihistamines These drugs are used to relieve symptoms of asthma, fundamental cause of this dis- hay fever and other allergies. ease. Antipyretics Drugs used to lower body temperature. Trypanosomiasis is transmit- Hormones Drugs used to combat hormone deficiency that cause ted from animal to man by the diseases. tse-tse fly and causes the Narcotics Drugs that deaden the nervous system and prevent a dreaded disease sleeping sick- person from feeling pain. ness. Kala-azar (Leishmania- Sedatives Drugs used to induce sleep, like barbiturates and sis) is transmitted by bromides. sandflies. Tranquillizers Drugs that calm nervous system and prevent worry, Hypothermia is the loss of tension etc. body heat (below 31.70C). People living in hilly areas Vaccines Drugs that are injected to help the body to develop resistance to disease or immunization of the body. suffer from goitre because of the lack of iodine in diet and drinking water. stimulates the formation of tan. But an excess is harmful Minamata disease resulting antibodies. and can cause skin cancer and from mercury poisoning A colour-blind person has dif- damage to retina. ficulty in distinguishing be- Test tube baby refers to the causes brain damage, birth tween green and red colour. phenomenon, where the fer- defects and death. This disease mainly affects Virus is responsible for tilization is external and devel- males. commoncold, the disease Hookworm enters the intes- opment is internal. which affects largest number tine by penetrating through World's first test tube baby of people in the world. the skin. Louise Brown was born on Amnesia is related to the loss 25th July 1978. Miscellaneous of memory. World health day is observed Antigen is a substance which UV radiation also give us a sun on April 7th. Important Digestive Enzymes Amyalse, (ptyalin) Salivary glands in mouth Starch to maltose Pepsin Gastric glands in stomach Proteins to peptones Trypsin Pancreas in abdomen Proteins to peptones Amylase Pancreas Carbohydrate to maltose Lipase Pancreas Fats to fatty acid and glycerol. Erepsin Intestinal glands in small intestine Peptides to amino acids Maltase Intestinal glands maltose to glucose Lactase Intestinal glands lactose to glucose Sucrase Intestinal glands sucrose to glucose. Agriculture dens in India Famous Botanical Garre, Kolkata of India, Alipo Agri Horticultural Society The chemical contained in to- Shibpur, Kolkata Indian Botanical Gardens, bacco is nicotine in root. taka Lalbagh, Bangalore, Karna l Nadu Quinine, Tannin and Cinna- tan ica l Garde ns, Udagamandalam, Tami Government Bo Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh mon are obtained from the Jhansi Botanical Garden, desh rden, Saharanpur, Uttar Pra bark of the tree. Saharanpur Botanical Ga Darjeeling, West Bengal Tea leaves contain 18% tan- Lloyd's Botanical Garden, rsity, West Bengal nts, North Bengal Unive nin. Garden of Medicinal Pla lode Kerala and Research Institute Pa T x D and D x T are high yield- Tropical Botanic Garden ing hybrid varieties of coco- nut. Fertilizers ily and rapidly degraded in Hybrid is an animal or plant nature. Azolla acts as biofertilizer in Biological control of insects that has been bred from two association with the blue-green means control of insect popu- different types of animals or algae. It is used in the cultiva- lation in exploitation of natu- plants. tion of rice. ral prey-predator relationship. HYV means High Yielding Va- N.P.K. mixtures are fertilizers D.D.T. (an insecticide) has a rieties. with the mixtures of nitrogen, tendency to remain stable in Foot and Mouth disease oc- phosphorus and potassium. environment for long periods. curs in cattle, sheep and pigs. Nitrogen helps in greening of Bordeaux mixture is a fungi- Cocoon stage of silkworm pro- plants and their rapid growth. cide. duces silk. Phosphorous helps in flower- BHC is Benzene Hexa Chlo- Silk worms are reared on mul- ing of plants. ride. Potassium helps in the fruit Loss of agricultural productiv- berry. forming stage in plants. ity due to pests and diseases The most important stimulant Salinity of soil can be neutral- is about 30%. in coffee leaves is caffeine. ized by using pyrite and gyp- Sporeine is a bio insecticide. Opium is extracted from the sum. Sporeine was the first bio in- immature fruits of the plant Iron is an essential micro-nu- secticide to be developed on poppy(Papaver somniferum). trient required for the devel- a commercial scale. Paper is chemically cellulose. opment of plants. Natural insecticide 'azadira- Sunflower oil has the maxi- Blue-Green algae works as a ctin' is obtained from Neem. mum polyunsaturated fatty bio-fertilizer. The pesticide used in founda- acids. tions of buildings for prevent- Mint is propagated through Pesticides ing, termite attack is 'Aldrin.' rhizomes. Pesticides include insecti- cides, fungicides, nemati- Forestry For safe storage, the moisture cides, rodenticides and herbi- contents of foodgrains Turpentine oil is obtained from cides. should be less than 14%. pinus tree. D.D.T and Parathion pesti- The acid present in the soil cides are banned in most of Sweet potato is a modification and substances formed by the the developed countries. Ma- of adventitious roots. decomposition of decayed jor drawback of D.D.T as a Plants and animals living in a green matter is ‘humic acid.’ pesticide is that it is not eas- given area form a community. Numbers in Human Body Number of bones ........................................ 206 Rate of blood pressure ........................... 120/80 mm. Hg. Number of muscles ..................................... 639 Number of RBC's ................. in male - 5,000,000/Cu. m.m. Number of ribs .............................................. 24 in female - 45,000,000/Cu. m.m. Number of bones in skull .............................. 22 Life span of RBC ............................................. 120 days Number of bones in neck ............................... 7 Life span of WBC ........................................... 2-15 days Number of bones in face ............................... 14 Amount of blood ............................................. 5-6 litres Number of cranial nerves ...................... 12 pairs Average amount of haemoglobin .. 14-15 mg/100 ml blood Number of spinal nerves ....................... 31 pairs Weight of brain .................................................. 1.4 kg. Number of heart beat ........... 70-72 times/minute Respiratory rate ................... 16-20 times/minute Test and Diseases Byopsi ....................................................... Cancer Lepromin Test .......................................... Leprosy Rain forests occur in Western Ghat and East- Eliza Test ....................................................... Aids ern Himalayas. Western Blot ................................................. Aids Herbarium is a collection of 'preserved Shik Test ................................................. Diptheria plants.' Tuberculin Test ................................. Tuberculosis Papsmear ......................................... Uterus Cancer The 'Great Banyan Tree' is in Indian Botani- Glycocelated Haemoglobin ..................... Diabetics cal Garden Sibpur, Kolkata. E.E.G .............................................. Brain Diseases Wild Life Protection Act was enacted in India in E.C.G .............................................. Heart Diseases 1972. Mamography .................................... Breast Cancer The threat of extinction of tigers forced the India Widal Test ................................................ Typhoid Vasarman Test ......................................... Syphilles government to initiate the 'Project Tiger' on April 1, 1973. (BSI) with its head office in Kolkata came into In India, paper is mainly manufactured from existence in 1890. Bamboos. National Botanical Garden (National Botanical Mango, Papaya, Banana, Guava, Pineapple, Research Institute, NBRI) is situated in Lucknow. Mangosteens etc are included in tropical fruits. Human Genome Project (HGP) Silent valley is a conserved HGP was launched in 1988, with the Nobel forest. laureate Dr. James D. Watson as the director Tropical rain forest is seen in and the project envisaged. Assam. The Human Genome Project originally Nicotine is a poisonous aimed to map the nucleotides contained in a alkaloid present in Tobacco. human haploid reference genome (more than Brazil is the native place of three billion). cashewnut. Objective of the Human Genome Project Rainforests occur in Western is to understand the genetic makeup of the Ghat and Eastern Himalayas. human species, the project has also focused ‘Vanamahotsav’ started in on several other nonhuman organisms such as 1950. E. coli, the fruit fly, and the laboratory mouse. Chipko movement is Project identified and map the connected with plant approximately 20,000–25,000 genes of the conservation. human genome from both a physical and Botanical survey of India functional standpoint. The Ramsar Convention Cloning The Ramsar Convention is an international treaty for the conserva- Cloning is the process of producing many identical tion and sustainable utilisation of wetlands. Ramsar Convention organisms or clones (clone (1971) was drafted at Ramsar, Iran. The headquarters is located in means exact carbon copy or Gland, Switzerland. copies of a single parent). World Wetlands Day occurs It is the production of one on 2 February each year. individual organism from a nucleus, cell or asexual offshot Tallest Animal ........................................................................... Giraffe or another. Largest Bird ............................................................................ Ostrich Ian Wilmut and his colleagues Smallest Bird................................................................. Humming Bird at the Roslin Research Institute Largest snake ..................................................................... Anakonda in Scotland cloned the first Largest Mammal ............................................................. Blue Whales sheep Dolly. Largest animal in land ............................................... African Elephant Longest flying bird ............................................................... Articturn The young one of Dolly, Largest Reptile .................................................................... Crocodile named Polly, was born in 1998. Fastest animal........................................................................... Chetta Ian Wilmut is considered as The Scientific Names Indian elephant ............................. Elephas maxims Frog ......................................... Rana hexadactyla Man ................................................ Homo sapiens Cat ............................................ Felix domesticus Hornbill ....................................... Buseros bywrnis Peacock .......................................... Pavo cristatus Tiger ............................................. Panthera tigris the father of cloning. Carbon copy is the first cloned Cockroch ........................... Periplaneta americana cat, in 2001, at Texas A and M Earthworm ............................ Pheretima Posthuma university. Crow ......................................... Corvus Splendens Cell cloning is based on the Parrot ....................................... Psittacula krameri property of totipotency ( in Penguin .................................. Aptenodytes forsteri plant) or pleuripotency ( in animals). Sparrow.................................... Passer domesticus Totipotency is a potential Whale .................................. Balaenoptera indica ability of plant cell to grow into Cow ..................................................... Bos indica complete plant. Pleuripotency Pig ...................................................... Sus scrofa is the potential ability of an Camel .................................. Camelus dromedarius animal cell to develop into any Horse ............................................ Equus caballus type of cell in the animal body. Species cloned Donkey ............................................ Equus asinus Tadpole, Carp, Mice, Sheep, Rabbit ................................ Oryctolagus cuniculas Rhesus Monkey, Gaur, Cattle, Squrrel ............................... Funambulus pennanti Cat, Dog, Rat, Mule, Horse, Water Buffalo and Camel.